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Publications of CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY, Philadelphia. 



THE 



Normal Series of Mathematics. 

BY EDWARD BROOKS, A.M., Ph.D., 

SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, PHILADELPHIA. 

This Series has had an extraordinary success, and is used in very many of the 
best Normal Schools, Seminaries and Public Schools in the country. Wherever 
known, the works receive the tiighest commendation. 



BROOKS'S NORMAL STANDARD SERIES. 

The Standard Series is a full course intended for Schools and Classes having ample 
time for a thorough study of the Science. It consists of the following four books : 

's Normal Primary Arithmetic. 
's Normal Elementary Arithmetic. 

rtic. 

iet£c. 

Its treatment is 



Brooks 
Brooks 
Broo 1 
Broo 

The Primary 
very plaii 

The Elemen 
than any 
mon busi 

The New Me 
It is easi 
the most 
cannot be 

The New Wr 
counts, T 
etc.) Its 
educators 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



-pfiTTTTi 
Chap. Copyright No.. 

Shelf..,\A/-5 1 1 ' 
J 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



; and with less labor 
Je qualified for com- 

;a'ysis of Numbers, 
ady to grapple with 
who use it say they 

(See Bills and Ac- 
lding Associations, 
alar among the best 



BROOKS'S NORMAL UNION SERIES. 

The Union Series is a condensed course, complete in Two Books, as follows : 

Brooks's Normal Union Arithmetic. Part 1. 
Brooks's Normal Union Arithmetic. Complete. 

For convenience of certain graded Schools in cities the latter work may be had 
bound up in two books, as follov0 : 

Brooks's Normal Union Arithmetic. Part 2. 
Brooks's Normal Union Arithmetic. Part 3. 

In the Union, Mental and Written Arithmetic are so combined that the pupil may obtain a 
thorough course in arithmetical analysis while becoming familiar with the application of the 
science to practical business. This union is here made not a mere nominal one, but a scien- 
tific reality. Key, *88 cts. 

Brooks's Normal Higher Arithmetic. 

Original, complete and practical. It abounds with striking novelties, presented with the utmost 
clearness and simplicity, all ;alculated to make the student a master of the theory of Arith- 
metic. It also represents the actual business as practiced in the counting-houses of mer- 
chants, custom-houses, banks and all kinds of incorporated companies. 



Publications of CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY, Philadelphia. 

Brooks's Normal Geometry and Trigonometry. 

By the aid of Brooks's Geometry the principles of this beautiful science can be easily acquired in 
one term. It is so condensed that the amount of matter is reduced one half, and yet the chain 
of logic is preserved intact. The subject is made interesting and practical by the introduction 
of Theorems for original demonstration, Practical Problems, Mensuration, etc., in their ap- 
propriate places. The success of the work is very remarkable. Key, $1.05*. 



Brooks's Plane and Solid Geometry. Complete. 
Brooks's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. 

In these new works the subjects have been fully developed with all the clear reasoning, broad 
analyses, and lucid explanation for which the author has become famous. Newest methods see 
used. Colleges and schools of the highest grade will find them works they have been wanting. 



Brooks's Normal Algebra. 



The many novelties, scientific arrangement, clear and concise definitions and principles, and 
masterly treatment contained in this work make it extremely popular. Each topic is so clearly 
and fully developed that the next follows easily and naturally. Young pupils can handle 
it, and should take it up before studying Higher Arithmetic. It can be readily mastered in 
one term, and ily needs introduction to make it indispensable. Key, $1.05*. 



Peterson's Familiar Science. 12mo. 
Peterson's Familiar Science. 18mo. 

This popular application of science to every-day results is universally liked, and has an immense 
circulation. No school should be without it. Inexperienced teachers have no difficulty in 
teaching it. 

Griffin's Lecture Notes on Chemistry. 
Griffin's Natural Philosophy. 

BY LA ROY F. GRIFFIN, 

LATE PROF. OF NATURAL •SCI ENCES AND ASTRONOMY, LAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY, ILL. 

Professor Griffin presents his subject simply, clearly and logically, his definitions are brief and 
clear, and his experiments vivid and impressive, so that the subject is easily mastered. The 
latest applications of the science to Electric Lights, Telephone, Phonograph, Electro-Plating, 
Magnetic Engines, Telegraphing, etc., are lucidly explained. 

Reading French Grammar. - 

Irregular French Verbs with their Inflections. 

By ED. H. MAGILL, Ex-President of Swarthmore College. 

ShepparcTs Text-Book of the Constitution. 
Sheppard's First-Book of the Constitution. 

The ablest jurists and professors in the country, of all political denominations, have given these 
works their most unqualified approval. Every young voter should be master of their contents. 



Montgomery's Industrial Drawing. 



This consists of a series of Drawing Books, comprising a Primary and Intermediate Course. 
The system is self-teaching, is carefully graded and is easily taught. 



FIRST LESSONS 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



AND 



COMPOSITION. 



BY 



JUDSON PERRV WELSH, A.M., Ph.D., 

Principal of the State Normal School of Bloomsburg, Pa. ; formerly Pro- 
fessor of English in the State Normal School of West Chester, 
Pa.; Author of ''Practical Lessons in English Grammar." 



jir 



PHILADELPHIA: 
CHRISTOPHER SOWER CO., 

614 ARCH STREET. 






Copyright, 1896, 
By JUDSON PERRY WELSH. 



ELECTROTYPED BY PRESS OF 

WESTCOTT & THOMSON, PHlLADA. SHERMAN & CO., PHILADA. 



PREFACE. 



The object of this little book is to lead pupils by easy steps to 
a careful, correct, and ready use of English. There are many 
technicalities in English that need to be taught to children early, 
— before incorrect or careless habits are formed. How to do this 
systematically and at the same time simply, has been the import- 
ant problem for teachers to solve. 

The outcry a few years ago against the mechanical teaching of 
English grammar did some harm, because it was taken up by the 
thoughtless and directed against the subject instead of against 
the books and methods. 

At that time came a loud call for language lessons. This call 
also was taken up by those ever ready to get on the popular 
side, and we had such a flood of language lessons, language 
books, and language teaching as was never before seen. 

Story-writing was the easiest, and therefore the chief way the 
fever worked itself off. Many excellent exercises were devised, 
and compiled in books, but without system. Language work 
seemed to lead to no end. Exercises had almost no connec- 
tion with one another. One could begin as well in the middle 
or end of a text-book as at the beginning, and get about as 
good results going one way as the other. Technicalities were 
religiously avoided. 

It was this condition of language teaching that led the author 
first to consider the production of a primary grammar. 

5 



6 PREFACE. 

It was with a desire to show that the great mass of material 
called grammar, was not grammar, and that the English language 
really does have a grammar, that led him to write the advanced 
work entitled " A Practical English Grammar." It is with much 
the same feeling that he has again ventured into the dangerous 
field of authorship. 

He believes that technicalities should not be avoided. They 
are important, or they would not exist. Children begin to learn 
the technicalities that belong to many branches of learning almost 
as soon as they learn anything ; and with what pride and eager- 
ness they strive to show their technical knowledge of any sub- 
ject all are aware. Why, then (since language is perhaps the 
most important means of their intellectual development, as it 
becomes in after years the most important element of their use- 
fulness, influence, and success), should the technicalities of their 
language be kept from them so studiously ? 

An uninteresting repetition of mechanical instruction, imagining 
technicalities that do not exist, giving them names and governing 
them by rules, after the fashion of dead and fully inflected lan- 
guages, are of course to be avoided ; but real technicalities, that 
occur in every-day use, should be studied — early and systemat- 
ically. They should be incorporated into the child's written 
speech, as he, of his own accord and from the first, incorporates 
them into his oral language. 

This is the only apology the author has to offer for inflicting 

upon his fellow-teachers another book. 

J. P. WELSH. 

State Normal School, 

Bloomsburg, Pa., 

June i, 1896. 



A TALK WITH THE TEACHER. 



The author would like to have a few words with you before 
you begin to use the contents of this book. 

He would like to remind you first that a text-book is only a 
help, and is not intended to do the teaching for you. Your 
pupils may need much more or much less than this book con- 
tains. They may be too far advanced for it, or not far enough 
advanced for it. Your first duty, then, is to study your pupils 
and determine what they need. Then adapt the book to those 
needs and supplement it if necessary. 

During the first three, or even four, years of a child's school 
life — that is, from six till nine or ten years old — his language 
work should grow out of his reading, science, and number 
work. Learning to read should constitute his chief occupation. 
In learning to read, as in learning to talk, he drinks in or absorbs 
much or little depending upon how he is taught, how he is inter- 
ested, and how his mind develops. 

In copying exercises, dictation exercises, descriptions, stories, 
written solutions, letter-writing, etc., all of which may be made 
to grow out of, or grow into his reading, there is abundant mate- 
rial for language work during these first years. No book should 
be necessary. The fact is, a book would probably be a hindrance 
to most teachers. For this period a book at most could only be 
a compilation of suggestions, many of which would be as likely 
to miss the mark as to hit it. 

7 



8 A TALK WITH THE TEACHER. 

At the age of nine or ten, a pupil of average ability, who 
has been well taught, should be ready to take up the work of 
this book and make good progress. The matter contained 
in and suggested by the book, together with the supplementary 
language matter coming from his study of science, history, 
and geography, will give abundant work for the next two 
years, after w r hich time he can begin his advanced course of 
study, as laid down in the author's advanced work on this 
subject. 

The Author. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

I. INTRODUCTION.— A Talk with the Teacher 7, 8 

II. WORDS AND GROUPS OF WORDS, OR SENTENCES . . 11, 12 

1. The Beginning and Ending of Sentences 15, 16 

2. Groups of Sentences, or Paragraphs 18 

3. Analysis of Paragraphs 19-21 

4. The Interrogative Sentence 21, 22 

5. The Imperative Sentence 22 

6. The Exclamatory Sentence 23 

7. The Declarative Sentence 24 

8. The Punctuation of Sentences 21-26 

9. The Subject and Predicate of a Sentence 26-29 

10. The Simple Sentence 116, 117 

11. The Compound Sentence 117 

12. The Complex Sentence 123 

III. PARTS OF SPEECH 33-211 

1. Nouns ^ 

a. Classes of Nouns 33—35 

b. Number of Nouns 44~55 

c. Possessive of Nouns 55-59 

d. Abbreviations 36-39 

2. Pronouns 84-90 

9 



IO CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

3. Verbs 94-101 

4. Adjectives * 62-68 

a. Classes of Adjectives 65, 66 

b. Comparison of Adjectives 68 

5. Adverbs 103-105 

a. Comparison of Adverbs 105 

6. Conjunctions 107, 108 

7. Prepositions 76 

8. Interjections no, 11 1 

IV. COMPOSITION 125-129 




LESSON I. 



A LESSON ABOUT WOEDS 



Men and women and boys and girls talk. They wish to let 
one another know what they desire or need, what they think, 
and how they feel. To do this they use words. 

Words are frequently spoken, but sometimes they are written 
or printed. When other persons see our written words, or hear 
our spoken words, they know what thoughts we have, or how we 
feel. 

Words are used in groups. At the end of each group we make 
a pause. 

Some groups express a thought ; as, All birds fear foxes. 

Other groups express only part of a thought; as, among the 
branches of a tree. 



12 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which of the following groups of words express a thought ? 

i. Three children sit by the wayside. 

2. One of them is a girl. 

3. On his knees. 

4. One boy has dark hair. 

5. A hat on his head. 

6. All the children have bare feet. 

7. One boy is talking. 

8. The other children are listening. 

9. Tied with a ribbon. 

A group of words used to express a thought is called a 
sentence.* 

How many of the foregoing groups are sentences ? 

Write a sentence about a dog. 
Write a sentence about a frog. 
Write a sentence about a butterfly. 
Write one about a violet. 
Write another about a pocket-knife. 

Change the sentences you have written into spoken sentences. 
Imagine you can hear what the boy in the picture is saying to 
his companions, and write five of his sentences. 

* To the Teacher. — In the author's opinion, statement should not be used for 
sentence. Children have no difficulty in learning and using the technical names. 
They learn technical terms that belong to other matters from the time they begin to 
talk. They don't first learn to call a certain implement a digger, and then after- 
ward learn to call it a spade. Many of the attempts to make things easy for children 
are ridiculous. Avoid unnecessary technical terms, but do not use substitutions for 
those that are necessary. 



A LESSON ABOUT LANGUAGE. I 3 

LESSON II. 

A LESSON ABOUT LANGUAGE. 

The many sentences we use in order to make one another 
understand our thoughts and feelings, make what is called 
language. 

Perhaps you may think this a big word, a long word, and a word hard to spell. 
But if you try, you can easily learn to spell it, and pronounce it. You will see soon 
that it is a very important word and much used. Learn to spell it now. 

People in different countries do not always use the same kind 
of language in expressing their thoughts ; so there are many kinds 
of language. 

The language we use is called the English language, be- 
cause it was first used by people who lived in England. 

Many of these English people came to America, when Amer- 
ica was first discovered. That is how it happened that the 
English language came to be used in our country. 

What name is given to the language of the people who live in 
France ? 

What is the name of the language used by the people of Ger- 
many ? 

Of Spain ? Of Italy ? Of Russia ? Of China ? 

Your teacher, your parents, or your schoolmates will answer any of these ques- 
tions you cannot answer. 

Children learn to talk in the language they hear their parents 
and playmates use. If your parents had always lived in France, 
and had used the French language, you would have learned that 



14 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

language, too. Then you would be a young Frenchman, 
and would be talking and reading and writing sentences in . 
French. 

What language do you think you would be using, if you had 
always lived in Italy ? In Spain ?. In Russia ? 

Let us see in how many ways we make known our thoughts 
to one another in our own language. 

If you taste something very bitter, you could say that it was 
bitter in three ways : 

i. By making a wry face. 

Motions, gestures, frowns, nods, smiles, and other natural signs are frequently 
used by both men and animals. 

This is called sign or gesture language. 

2. By saying the word bitter. 
This is called spoken language. 

3. By writing the word bitter. 
This is called written language. 

Which of these three kinds of language do you use most ? 

How do dogs and other animals make us know their thoughts ? 

When cats, horses, cows, and other animals are angry, how do 
we find it out ? 

If you coidd not hear, and had never learned to talk, how would 
you make known your zvishes ? 

See whether you can use all of these three ways to tell your 
teacher that you hear a noise on the play-ground. 



BEGINNING AND ENDING OF SENTENCES. 



15 




LESSON III. 



BEGINNING AND ENDING OF SENTENCES. 

Here are a number of sentences. 
Read them. 

Cats can be taught to do cute things this cat knows many funny 
tricks she can ring a bell for her dinner she can also jump through a 
hoop she can climb a ladder like a boy she enters the kitchen through 
a little swing door of her own she has learned to open this door for 
herself the door closes itself after her the name of this cat is Dido she 
belongs to Dick Billings. 

Now read these sentences : 

Cats can be taught to do cute things. This cat knows many funny 
tricks. She can ring a bell for her dinner. She can also jump 
through a hoop. She can climb a ladder like a boy. She enters the 
kitchen through a little swing door of her own*. She has learned to 



1 6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

open this door for herself. The door closes itself after her. The 
name of this cat is Dido. She belongs to Dick Billings. 

Which of these groups of sentences can you read most easily ? 
Why? 

Perhaps you know that the large letter at the beginning of the 
first word of each sentence in this second group is a capital 
letter. 

Remember that written or printed sentences should always 
begin with a capital letter. 

Perhaps you know that the little dot at the end of each sentence 
in the second group is a period. 

All sentences do not end with a period, but most of them do. 
Would you like to know which do not? 
Notice these two sentences : 

i. Who is the owner of Dido? 
2. What a cute cat Dido is ! 

The first sentence is a question. 

Questions end with a question mark. 

Write a question and place a question mark at the end. 

The second sentence is an exclamation. 

Exclamations end with an exclamation mark. 

Write an exclamation and place an exclamation mark at the end. 

Every sentence that is not a question or an exclamation 
should end with a period. 

Copy the following group of sentences, using capital letters, 
periods, question marks, and exclamation marks where they 
belong. 



SENTENCES IN GROUPS. 1 7 

A lady owned a cat and a canary bird the cat and the bird were 
good friends the canary was not afraid of the cat one day the lady 
went to visit a friend on her return the bird was gone the cage had 
fallen to the floor either the bird had been eaten by the cat or had 
escaped through the open window the cat seemed very sad the next 
day she came into the house with the canary in her mouth unhurt she 
had caught it in a neighboring tree what a noble cat that was do you 
not think the lady was proud of her pets 



LESSON IV. 
SENTENCES IN GROUPS. 

You learned in Lesson I. that a group of words expressing a 
thought is a sentence. 

You will be interested to know that there is a name also for a 
group of sentences. 

A group of sentences is a paragraph. 

The sentences in a paragraph must express thoughts that 
belong together to tell about something. 

Notice the first group of sentences in .Lesson III. All the 
sentences in that group belong together to tell about the cat 
Dido. They form a paragraph. 

The sentences about the cat and the canary bird form another 
paragraph. They also belong together. 

Here is another paragraph : 

Two boys went to the brook to fish. One had a rod with a line tied 
to it. On the end of the line was a hook. A worm was fastened on 
the hook. The other boy carried a small net fast to the end of a pole. 
On reaching the stream, Henry threw the hook and line into the water. 



1 8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Soon he felt something jerk and try to get away with his line. He 
drew it up quickly, and found a fish fast to the hook. It loosened 
itself, and was falling into the water. James thrust his net under it 
and caught it. 

Notice that in this paragraph, and in all paragraphs properly 
written and printed, the first line begins farther to the right than 
the rest of the lines of the paragraph. This makes a notch or 
uneven place in the paragraph. You are reading a paragraph 
now. Notice the notch at the beginning. 

We say of the first line of a paragraph that it is indented. 
Indented means notched. 

A sentence used alone is indented like a paragraph, and may 
also be called a paragraph. 

How many paragraphs are in this lesson ? 

How many of them consist of one sentence ? 

Copy the paragraph about the boys who went fishing. Be care- 
fid to indent the first line and to use capital letters and periods 
properly. 

Write a paragraph that shall be made of sentences expressing 
the following ideas : 

game of ball 
new bat 
new ball 
bat flies 
hits James 
carried home 
well next day 
plays ball 

To THE Teacher. — Many exercises may need to be added to those in the book, 
to give sufficient drill in making paragraphs. Solutions of problems, history, geog- 
raphy, and reading lessons furnish abundant materials. 



ANALYSIS OF PARAGRAPHS. 



19 




LESSON V. 



ANALYSIS OF PARAGRAPHS. 



A GRATEFUL DOG. 

Some years ago a little boy, not more than eight years old, was sent 
on an errand. On his return, as he was going home, a lame dog, 
rough and dirty, came limping after him. A bad boy would have 
thrown stones at the poor dog ; but the little boy of whom I am 
telling you had been taught to be gentle and kind. 

He saw that the dog had been ill-used, and that it wanted a friend. 
He let it follow him home. 

When the little boy asked his mother if she would let the dog come 
into the house, the poor dog seemed as though it knew what was said. 
It looked, oh, so sad ! that the children almost cried when they saw 
its large bright eyes looking up to them for pity. 

The mother, who had taught her children to be kind and gentle, 
did not turn the poor, hungry, lame dog away. She let it go into the 



20 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wash-house ; and the children gave it some food, and some water to 
drink, and some clean straw to lie upon. 

After a few days it got well, and it soon made itself clean, and 
began to show how pleased it was, and how clever it was. It did all 
that a dog could do to show how thankful it was for the kindness 
shown to it. — From " Scattered Seeds ." 

How many groups of sentences do you find in the story about 
the " Grateful Dog?" 

Is each of these groups a paragraph ? 

Why? 

What do the sentences in the first paragraph tell ? Ans. They 
tell of a kind boy meeting a lame dog. 

What do the sentences in the second paragraph tell ? 

What do the sentences of the third paragraph tell ? 

What do the sentences of the next paragraph tell ? 

What do the sentences of the last paragraph tell ? 

Do you see anything in the picture not told in any of these 
paragraphs ? 

Write an additional paragraph and tell how the dog showed his 
thankfulness, a?id what pleasure it gave the children ? 

Do not neglect, when you write paragraphs, 

1. To leave a margin half an inch -wide at the left of your 
paper, and 

2. To leave a space half an inch long* at the beginning- of 
the first line of each paragraph ; 

3. To place the proper mark at the end of each sentence, 
and 

4. To begin each sentence with a capital letter. 

Copy the entire story, including the paragraph you have added, 
and observe all the foregoing cautions. 



A LESSON AB0U7" QUESTIONS. . 21 

LESSON VI. 

A LESSON ABOUT QUESTIONS. 

When we want other people to tell us things we do not know, 
we ask questions. Children ask more questions than grown 
people, because grown people know many things that children 
want to know. 

Every question is a sentence, and is followed by a mark 
like this (?) which is called a question mark (see p. 1 6). 

Here are thirteen questions : 

Make sentences that shall be answers to them. Don t forget to 
follow each sentence you make with the proper mark. 

i. What is your name? 

2. How old are you ? 

3. How many legs has a spider? 

4. What do horses eat ? 

5. What do caterpillars become? 

6. What are the eggs of fish called ? 

7. Can a dog purr like a cat ? 

8. What have you learned about lobsters? 

9. How many petals has a violet ? 

10. Is the foot of a horse cleft, like the foot of a cow ? 

11. Of what is paper sometimes made? 

12. Can a dog climb a tree like a cat? 

13. Are bats birds? 

Write a question about a tree. 

Write a question about a humming-bird. 

Write a question about a robin. 



22 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

See how many questions you can write about a fly. 

See how many questions you can write about a buttercup. 

What kind of mark did you place after each question ? 

A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative 
sentence. 

LESSON VII. 

A LESSON ABOUT COMMANDS. 

A command is also a sentence. 
Here are two commands : 

i. Bring me ray hat. 

2. Please carry this bucket of coal. 

Notice what mark follows each command. 

Write a command telling some person to pump a pail of water. 
Write another telling some person to sharpen your pencil. 
Write one telling some person to explain a problem. 
Write a command telling some one to hand you a book. 

How many commands have been given to you in this lesson ? 

We should be kind and polite in giving commands. It is 
better to say, " Please bring me my hat" than to say, " Bring me 
my hat." 

Commands can sometimes be changed into questions, and are 
then still more agreeable. We may say, " Will you please bring 
me my hat?" 

See whether any of the commands you have written can be 
changed into questions. 

A sentence that expresses a command is called an impera- 
tive sentence. 



A LESSON ABOUT EXCLAMATIONS. 2\ 

LESSON VIII. 
A LESSON ABOUT EXCLAMATIONS. 

Sometimes sentences express the way we feel when something 
excites us. 

If we see a very beautiful rainbow, we are apt to exclaim 
" How beautiful the rainbow is f 

A boy with the toothache is apt to exclaim, " Oh, how my tooth 
pains r 

If it is a very warm day some one will exclaim, " Hozu warm 
it is to-day /" 

Sentences like these that express strong" feeling* are called 
exclamatory sentences. 

Exclamatory is a long word, but not a very hard one to remem- 
ber after you know how to pronounce it. It has five syllables : 
ex-clam-a-to-ry. 

Pronounce it several times. 

Notice what kind of mark is placed after an exclamatory sen- 
tence. It is like this (!), and is called an exclamation mark. 

Which of the following sentences express feeling ? 
Which ask questions ? 
Which express commands ? 
Which declare or state facts ? 

i. What a beautiful top you have ! 

2. Did you make the top? 

3. Let me see your top. 

4. The top is made of wood. 

5. John has a pet squirrel. 

6. Is it a gray squirrel? 

7. He keeps it in a cage. 



24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. John's pony and the squirrel are friends. 

9. The squirrel often sits on the pony's back. 

10. Can they talk to each other ? 

11. How nice it is to have two such fine pets ! 

12. Tell us about your pets. 

13. Spell the word squirrel for us. 

State which of the foregoing sentences are interrogative. Why ? 
Which are imperative ? Why ? 
Which are exclamatory ? Why ? 

Periods, commas, question marks, exclamation marks, and 
other marks used to separate sentences and parts of sen- 
tences are called punctuation marks. 



LESSON IX. 

Write a sentence stating what a wasp can do to you. 

Write an exclamatory sentence expressing how this would make 
you feel. 

Write an interrogative sentence asking something about the home 
of the wasp. 

Which one of the sentences you have written states or declares 
a fact ? 

A sentence that states or declares a fact is called a declar- 
ative sentence. 

Most of the sentences we use are declarative sentences. 

In Lesson VIII. which of the thirteen sentences are declarative ? 

Write five declarative sentences about a clock. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 



25 




LESSON X. 
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

The best way to learn to use correctly capital letters and punc- 
tuation marks, is to practice using them as much as possible. So, 
another exercise for this purpose is provided here, and, if you 
need them, your teacher will provide additional ones. 

Here is a story made up of many sentences, all printed one 
after another. No capital letters are used ; no punctuation 
marks are used ; it is not divided into paragraphs. 

You can see by this how important capital letters, paragraph- 
ing, and punctuation marks are. If we did not have them, it 
would be very difficult to read anything. 



A WISE RAVEN. 

Once there was a raven that was very thirsty he found a pitcher with 
some water in it his neck and bill were too short to reach the water 



26 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

what do you think he did he first tried to break the pitcher with his 
bill how foolish that was then he tried to upset the pitcher this he was 
not strong enough to do at last it occurred to him to drop stones into 
Jhe pitcher this was a wise thought he carried many stones and dropped 
them into the pitcher the water then rose to the top after taking a drink 
he flew away satisfied 

Copy this story, making two paragraphs of it. 

Use capital letters and marks of punctuation where they belong. 

What kind of sentence is each one in the story ? 



LESSON XL 
THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Here are five sentences : 

i. Bees gather honey. 

2. Fish live in the water. 

3. Birds sleep in the tree- tops. 

4. Beavers build dams. 

5. Kites are made of paper. 

In the first sentence, bees is the name of the things talked 
about. Gather honey are the words used to tell what is said 
about bees. 

What word names the things talked about in the second sen- 
tence? In the third? In the fourth? In the fifth? 

The word used in a sentence to name the thing* talked 
about, is called the subject of the sentence. 

What is the subject of the first sentence ? Of the second ? Of 
the third? Of the fourth ? Of the fifth ? 



THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 2J 

Supply subjects so that each of the following expressions will be 
a true sentence. 

i. eats grass. 

2. struck ten just now. 

3. shines brightly. 

4. . had a large bone in his mouth. 

5. caught a big rat. 

6. lives in a hollow tree. 

The words in a sentence that tell something about the 
subject are called the predicate. 

In the sentence Bees gather honey, the words gather honey are 
the predicate, because they are used to tell something about the 
subject bees. 

What is the predicate in each of the following sentences ? 

1. Hens lay eggs. 

2. Cows give milk. 

3. Fish swim. 

4. Owls are blind in the day-time. 

Write predicates for each of the following subjects : 

1. This orange 

2. Bats .. 

3. The bell 



4. An island 

5. A pretty little rabbit 

6. Henry's new sled 



Note to the Teacher. — Continue these exercises (supplying subjects and 
predicates) until every pupil is able to distinguish subjects and predicates readily in 
easy sentences. Do not puzzle the pupil with transposed sentences. Sentences from 
preceding lessons may be used for additional exercises. 

By a careful use of the author's Practical English Grammar, the teacher will be 
greatly aided in the teaching of primary grammar. The advanced Grammar has 
a handy reference index. 



28 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XII. 
THE PROPER PLACES FOR SUBJECTS.* 

In the sentence, Foxes have holes, the subject Foxes is at the 
beginning of the sentence. This is true of most sentences, but 
sometimes the subject is found in some other part of the sen- 
tence. 

In the interrogative sentence, Do foxes have holes ? you see 
that the subject foxes is not at the beginning, but stands among 
the words of the predicate, do have holes. 

Why is foxes the subject ? 

It is the subject, because it names that about which something 
is asked. 

Name the subject in each of the following sentences. 
Tell why it is the subject. 

i . Can cats climb trees ? 

3. Does the pet rabbit eat apples ? 

3. Does the old cow wear a bell ? 

4. Have you a fishing-rod ? 

5. Can an owl see well in the day-time? 

6. Has the sheep a long tail ? 

An imperative sentence has no subject expressed. The person 
who uses an imperative sentence, keeps the subject in his mind. 
He thinks the subject, but he does not say it or write it. 

In the sentence, Open your book, these three words form the 
predicate. The person who uses the command has you in mind 
as the subject. He means that you are to open your book. He 

* To the Teacher. — This lesson, and many others, may need to be divided. 



THE PROPER PLACES EOR SUBJECTS. 29 

does not need to say the subject, because every one understands 
who is meant. Such a subject is, for this reason, called an under- 
stood subject. 

Name the understood subject in each of the following imperative 
sentences. 

Tell why it is the subject. 

1. Keep your hat off in the house. 

2. Do not eat with your knife. 

3. Be polite to everybody. 

4. Be kind to dumb animals. 

5. Name the subjects of these sentences. 

6. Always thank people for favors. 

7. Clean your finger-nails after washing your hands. 

8. Brush your teeth after each meal. 

In an exclamatory sentence, the subject often stands near the 
end of the sentence. 

How hard the ball is ! In this sentence, ball is the thing talked 
about, and is, therefore, the subject. 

Name the subject in each of the following exclamatory sentences. 
Tell why it is the subject. 

1 . What excellent apples this tree bears ! 

2. How fast the train moves ! 

3. How easy this lesson is ! 

4. How high the crow flies ! 

5. What a strong arm the blacksmith has ! 

6. How small the mouse is ! 

7. What beautiful plumage the canary has ! 

8. How eager the chicks are for their feed ! 

Notice that every exclamatory sentence is followed by an 
exclamation mark. 



30 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




LESSON XIII. 

A COPYING LESSON. 

Copy the following story, and be careful to put in all the capital 
letters and punctuation marks, just as they are found here. 
Be careful also to make the paragraphs the same. 



PEPPER AND POLLY. 

Pepper is the name of a kitten with black and white fur and green 
eyes. He came to our house in a basket. Jane took him out of the 
basket. The first thing he did was to scratch the baby. The next 
thing he did was to scamper up stairs and hide. Jane found him at 
night fast asleep in a box with her new bonnet. What a mixture of 
fur, feathers, and ribbons there must have been ! 

Pepper had bad tricks. He would chase little chickens. He finally 
killed two little black chickens. Scolding and punishing seemed to do 
him no good. 



A REVIEW LESSON. 3 1 

Jane had a parrot by the name of Polly. Polly broke Pepper of 
this naughty trick. One day Polly concealed herself in the high grass 
with the chickens. Then she made a noise like a chicken. Pepper 
thought it was a chicken. He pounced upon Polly. Polly gave him 
a sound whipping. She pulled some of his fur out. She picked his 
head sore. He did not get well for many days. Was not that a good 
lesson for Pepper ? He never chased chickens again. 

How many declarative sentences are in this story ? 
Hvw many interrogative sentences ? 
How many exclamatory sentences ? 



LESSON XIV. 
A REVIEW LESSON.* 

A review lesson is one in which things that have been studied 
before, are studied again to learn them more thoroughly. 

Here are some questions for you to answer. If you know 
everything in the first thirteen lessons, you can easily answer all 
these questions. If you cannot answer them, turn back and find 
the answers. Then write the answers. 

In writing, let each answer be composed of one or more com- 
plete sentences. Be careful about your paragraphs, capital letters, 
and punctuation. 



* To the Teacher. — There is, no doubt, enough material here for several lessons. 
Do not try to review more than can be thoroughly done. Insist on all answers being 
written. It may be easier for you and more agreeable for the pupils to make this an 
oral exercise ; but if you do, they will not get all the benefit from it. By conversation, 
questions, comparisons, friendly criticisms, and corrections make the exercises as inter- 
esting as possible. Be careful not to make the lessons too long, so as to require so great 
an amount of writing that it will become very tiresome. Insist on neat papers, good pen- 
manship, correct punctuation, use of capitals, etc. Above all things keep your pupils 
expressing their thoughts in writing. Remember, " Writing maketh an exact man." 



32 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. What is a sentence ? 

2. Of what are sentences made? 

3. Do we make sentences when we talk ? When we write ? 

4. What is language ? 

5 . What is the name of the language you use ? 

6. What is the name of the language used in China? In France? 

7. How do boys and girls learn the language they use? 

8. What is sign language ? 

9. What have you learned about the use of capital letters? 

10. After what kind of sentences should we use an exclamation 
mark? 

11. After what kind of sentences should a question mark be used ? 

12. After what kind is a period used? 

13. What is a paragraph ? 

14. How is the first line of a paragraph written? 

15. Name the four kinds of sentences. 

16. Write a sentence of each kind? 

17. What is the subject of a sentence? 

18. What is the predicate of a sentence? 

19. What is the position of the subject in the declarative sentence? 

20. What is the position of the subject in the interrogative sentence ? 

21. What is the position of the subject in the exclamatory sentence ? 

22. What kind of sentence has the subject understood? 



LESSON XV. 

ANOTHER REVIEW LESSON. 

State what kind of sentence each of the following is, and indi- 
cate the subject and predicate of each : 



1. Ebony is a very hard, black wood. 

2. Camphor is the white gum of a tree. 



A LESSON ABOUT NAMES. 33 

3. Oranges grow in the West Indies. 

4. Where are the West Indies ? 

5. Sugar is made from sugar-cane. 

6. Sugar-cane looks like growing corn. 

7. Write the word sugar-cane with a hyphen. 

8. What is a hyphen ? 

9. Ask your teacher. 

10. A stitch in time saves nine. 

1 1 . Little leaks sink great ships. 

12. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

13. What a great king Solomon was ! 

14. Tell some interesting story about Solomon. 

15. Who was Solomon's father? 

16. Look not upon the wine. 



LESSON XVI. 
A LESSON ABOUT NAMES. 

The words we use in sentences are not all alike. Some of 
them are the names of persons, places, or things ; as John, tawn y 
ball. Other words express actions ; as, walk, ride, sing. Others 
express qualities of things ; as, good, beautiful, hard. Some con- 
nect expressions ; as, Spring has come, and I am glad. 

There are eight different kinds of words in our language, each 
having its own office to perform. 

The eight different kinds of words are called parts of speech. 

Name-words are called nouns. 
Copy the following nouns in two lists : 

1 . Put in the first list names of persons. 

2. Put in the second list the navies of animals. 
3 



34 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



boy, 


person, 


Mabel, 


caterpillar, 


animal, 


Columbus, 


Horace, 


Henry, 


cat, 


sparrow, 


bee, 


mouse, 


horse, 


fish, 


girl. 



Notice that four nouns, Horace, Henry, Mabel, and Columbus 
begin with capital letters. 

Copy the following nouns in two lists : 

1 . Put in the first list the names of places. 

2. Put in the second list the names of things. 



door, . 


• sugar, 


Pennsylvania, 


state, 


Philadelphia, 


school, 


hive, 


sieve, 


j u g> 


ax, 


smoke, 


board, 


book, 


flower, 


Chicago, 


slate, 


place, 


sled, 


glass, 


city. 



Notice that three nouns, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and 
Chicago, begin with capital letters. 



LESSON XVII. 



ANOTHER LESSON ABOUT NAMES. 

Some names belong to all things of the same kind. Others 
belong only to certain persons and things. 

The noun man applies to any man. It is a name that will apply 
to all the men in the world, but the noun John belongs only to 
some particular person or persons. 

The noun city applies to all cities, but Boston is the name of a 
particular city. 



A LESSON ABOUT INITIALS. 35 

The noun month applies to any month, but July is the name of 
a certain month. 

The nouns man, city, and month are called common nouns. 
The nouns John, Boston, and July are called proper nouns. 

A proper noun, you notice, always begins with a capital 
letter. 

Copy five proper nouns from your reader. 

Copy five common nouns from your reader. 

Write the names of five objects seen on your way to school. 

Write the names of all the months in the year. 

Write the names of all the days of the week. 

Write the common names of five animals. 

Write the proper names of five of your playmates. 

Write two names of persons. 

Write two names of things. 

Write two names of animals. 

Write three names of periods of time, — such as day, minute. 



LESSON XVIII. 
A LESSON ABOUT INITIALS. 

Once there was a little boy by the name of Henry Wadsworth 
Longfellow. He grew to be a great man, and wrote some very 
beautiful poetry for boys and girls to read. One who writes 
poetry is called a poet. 

He often shortened his name by writing it thus : Henry W. 
Longfellow. 

The first letter of a word is called its initial letter. Initial 
means beginning. W is the initial of the word Wadsworth. 



36 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When initials are used instead of words a period should be 
placed after each. 

How many words are in this poets name ? 

Write your full name. 

How many words are in your name ? 

If your name has three words in it y write it, using the initial for 
the middle word. 

Did your ever see a person's name having' four words ? 

Write the name of each member of your class, using the initial 
for the middle word of each. 

The initial of the first word and last word in a name should 
seldom be used. If some one were to write for you the initials 
O. W. H., you would not know whose name was meant; but if 
he were to write Oliver Wendell Holmes or Oliver W. Holmes, 
you might recognize it as the name of another great poet. 



LESSON XIX. 

A LESSON ABOUT ABBREVIATIONS. 

Instead of the word bushel, the shortened form bu. may be 
used. Instead of the word October, the shortened form Oct. 
may be used. Instead of the word Mister, the shortened form 
Mr. may be used. 

A shortened word is called an abbreviation. 

Abbreviate means shorten. 

Initials are abbreviations. (See previous lesson.) 

A period should always be placed after an abbreviation. 



A LESSON ABOUT ABBREVIATIONS. 



37 



Abbreviations generally (not always) begin with capital 
letters. 

P. M. is the abbreviation for afternoon. 



A. M. 


" " " forenoon. 


No. " " " number. 


St. " " " street. 


Dr. " " " doctor. 


Rev. " " " reverend. 


Mrs. (pronounced mis' sis) 


is the abbreviation for mistress. 


qt. " " " quart. 


oz. " " " ounce. 


doz. " " " dozen. 


ft. " " li foot or feet (in length) 


in. " " " inch. 


C.O.D. il " " collect on delivery. 


yd. " " " yard. 


Sun. 




Mon. 




Tues. 




Wed. 


> are abbreviations for the different days of 


Thurs. 




Fri. 




Sat. 





Three of the foregoing words or their abbreviations are used 
with the names of persons to show them respect or honor. 

Words or their abbreviations used with the names of per- 
sons to indicate respect, honor, or distinction are called titles. 

We should write Mr. J. B. Clark, if the man by this name is a 
respectable member of the community in which he lives. 

We should write Mrs. J. B. Clark as the name of Mr. J. B. 
Clark's wife (if Mr. Clark is living). 



38 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



We should write Mrs. Ann Clark, if the woman named is a widow. 

We should write G. J. Wilson, Esq., if the man named is a 
lawyer. 

We should write Rev. P. S. Pollock, if the man named is a 
minister of the gospel. 

We should write Miss Elizabeth Richards, if the person named 
is an unmarried lady. 

In using titles, we should be careful — 

1. Not to use with the same name, two or more titles having 
nearly the same meaning. We should not say Dr. T. B. Johnson, 
M. D. ? or Mr. A. B. Jones, Esq. 

2. Not to give ourselves titles. This would not show good 
taste. When an unmarried lady, however, is writing a letter to 
a stranger, she may use the title Miss, in order that she may be 
properly addressed in the reply. Married ladies should always 
use the title Mrs. when signing their names to letters. 

Jan. 
Feb. 
Mar. 



are the abbreviations of the different months. 



Apr. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 



May, June, and July are not abbreviated. 

Every good dictionary contains a list of words abbreviated. 
You should learn where this list is, and how to find in it the 
abbreviations you need to use. 



A COPYING LESSON. 39 

LESSON XX. 

A COPYING LESSON. 

Copy the follozving sentences and explain all the abbreviations. 
Notice carefully the periods and capital letters used : 

1. Mr. and Mrs. Geo. Walters are our neighbors. 

2. The Rev. B. T. Pencyl took the train at 4 P. M. 

3. We live at No. 42 Nassau St., near the residence of Dr. Davis. 

4. He goes to the city on Mon., Wed., and Fri. of each week. 

5. I will give you a qt. of syrup for a doz. eggs. 

6. It will take 15 yds. of carpet to cover a room 9 ft. wide and 
15 ft. long. 

Find in the dictionary the correct abbreviations for the following 
words, then show how they should be used : 



Esquire, 


Junior, 


General, 


Doctor, 


Governor, 


President, 


Professor, 


East, 


West, 


North, 


South, 


September. 



Find correct abbreviated titles for persons of the following 
description. Supply the names and write the names and titles 
together : 

Model. — Benjamin G. Battles, Sr. {for the fourth description). 

1. A married lady. 

2. An unmarried lady. 

3. A son who has the same name as his father. 

4. A father who has a son of the same name. 

5. An editor of a newspaper. 

6. A judge. 

7. A lawyer. 



40 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. A physician. 

9. A clergyman. 

10. A merchant. 

11. The governor of your State. 

12. The President of the United States. 

13. The superintendent of your schools. 

14. A teacher in a college. 



LESSON XXI. 
HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 






Cy 4%<tZ4i.<e <w-ee<n. ^yi,^e^i€^c^z^ ^-a <u*-<i<t<t<e 



^ 



t-a-^-cc^, <utts£ 



-att -a <z-<e't'l<e / l. -u.€.p-a^t^. t-a-€i.<z^. <u<zf£ 'tu-e <?z<ci4jL-e ^X^e-e^i. 



-tsLr-d^-e , e.j£&<efe^ d^i^^A^d, <€i4 / t,€z ^t/i^e^i G/ -to-ad d-a -£<£4<e<cz 



<€fyi-c£ ds£<e<e<fii£ Cy -ca-zt'tiz ^-a<£ ^2-2^2^2. ^tu-^tz^t ^t-a d-ezts,. 



(J/^ 4,d d<atM<£ / yn%, df-a^-cc-ai^, dti Cy 'A<z.iJL<e -vo^td <ap '£t,wi<e 



HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 4 1 



-t^-m-ed <£n.<ei£ pAi£ we-tit. A^^zA. -awt/ -tA&w d^t-^z^ 



YZ-e4 / i4si£ svfo-esu, ds£afe ^wd -de^^d^i <£& ^W*s da<pw-e'id<ez<t4<£4 



<ad ^A ^Ae/M, '££■ atzixA't ^A^ey, Atzt/ fe^4.Aa'i / t4 / ie€Z <i dd^i€i^ 



G/t4,<ed'CL€?.'M, / -a'sicc G/ dA-tzAA Ae -tpAa-cc A-a d<e.<e ^att -tzwtz 

' Oe<cA-t'aw€iA<e. d-a^i, 



42 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Envelope addressed and Stamped. 




/ JW&. C^aAam, 






1. Copy the foregoing letter, taking care to make the same 
arrangement of all its parts. 

Be careful, also, about punctuation , paragraphs, capitals, and the 
use of titles. 

Imagine you are visiting an uncle in the country at hay- 
making time. See the grass cut with a mowing machine, dried 
in the sun, raked with a horse-rake, and lifted on the wagon with 
its long rack, by strong men using long-handled forks. You ride 
to the barn on this high load of hay, and see it put in the great mow. 

2. Write a letter to your sister describing how you saw them 
making hay. 

Imagine spending the Christmas holidays with your cousin 
in the city. You take drives in the park. You and your cousin 
ride on horseback. You attend a concert one night. One even- 
ing you play games — " blind-man's buff," perhaps, or checkers. 
You go skating one day. 

3. Write a letter to your mother telling her of your visit. 



HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 



43 




LESSON XXII. 



Write the story told by this picture. 

Remember to take great care in your use of capitals, para- 
graphs, punctuation, and penmanship. 

If you learn to write neatly, and express your thoughts well in 
writing, it will be of great value to you sometime. 

Some day you will want to write letters to your friends, or 
conduct the business of a store, or manage a factory, or a farm, 
or do something else that will require you to express your 
thoughts in writing. When that time comes, you will be glad 
you have had these lessons that require you to practice express- 
ing your thoughts on paper. 

Don't you know persons who wish they could write well ? 
Would they not be more prosperous, more useful, and happier 
if they could write well ? 

People who can write well, can generally talk well, too. 



44 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXIII. 
ONE AND MORE THAN ONE. 

The boy has an apple. 

In this sentence one boy and one apple are mentioned. 

The boys have some apples. 

In this sentence more than one boy and more than one apple are 
mentioned. 

How was the noun boy changed to make it name more than 
one ? The noun apple ? 

Singular number means one. 

Plural number means more than one. 

A noun in the singular number names one thing. 

A noun in the plural number names more than one thing. 

The noun boy is in the singular number. 

The noun boys is in the plural number. 

Adding 1 s to the singular of the noun boy makes it plural. 
This is true of many nouns. 

Add s to the following nouns , and explain how the meaning of 
each is changed : 

Model. — Cat -{-sweats. This is now a plural noun and means 
more than one cat. 



cat, 


pencil, 


key, 


Pig> 


chair, 


dog, 


hen, 


rake, 


hoe, 


lamb, 


book, 


pen, 


fork, 


boy, 


table, 


slate, 


carriage, 


shovel, 


girl, 


bird. 



Remove s from the end of each of the following nouns, and 
explain how the meaning is changed : 



stoves, 


eyes, 


arms, 


coals, 


ears, 


legs, 


papers, 


hands, 


toes, 


baskets, 


cheeks, 


fingers. 



ONE AND MORE THAN ONE. 45 

Model. — Hoes — s = hoe. — This word is now a singular noun, 
and means only one hoe. 

hoes, balls, 

boots, lessons, 

wagons, letters, 

cows, lamps, 

Write the plural forms of the following nouns : 

hen, book, nest, 

chair, leg, stove, 

cat, pen, shoe. 

Fill each blank in the following sentences with one of the plural 
forms you have just made : 

1. are made to sit on. 

2. Wise people read good . 

3. catch mice. 

4. lay eggs. 

5. are made to write with. 

6. Leather is used in making . 

7. We burn coal in . 

8. Birds build . 



9. Tables stand by means of . 

Use the plurals of the following words in the following blanks, 
where they will be suitable : 

boy, chair, field, 

pen, flower, back, 

lamp, bird, letter. 

1. We use in writing — ■. . 

2. The saw some feeding their young. 

3. These beautiful grew in the . 

4. Some have high . 

5. The are burning brightly. 



46 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXIV. 

NOUNS MADE PLURAL ANOTHER WAY. 

In the previous lesson, we learned that many nouns are made 
plural by adding the letter s to the singular form. 
Read these two sentences : 

i. Two benches stand on the porch. 
2. One bench is broken. 

How is the plural of the noun bench made ? 
Could you pronounce it, if it were made plural by adding s only ? 
Try it. 

You see it ends in a sound that will not unite with s alone, so 
we use es to make it plural. 

There are many nouns of this kind. 

Write the plural form of each of the following nouns : 

boy, dish, tax, church, match, 

watch, peach, brush, ax, box. 

Fill each of the following blanks with one of the plural forms 
you have just made : 

i. The cook is washing the . 



2. We use to light lamps. 

3. Oranges are shipped in . 

4. The man was unable to pay his . 

5. The congregations of the town built two new 

6. The jeweler repairs clocks and . 

7. Farmers enclose their fields with . 

8. are excellent fruit. 

9. Painters use in painting. 

10. The wood-choppers are grinding their . 



PECULIAR PLURALS. 47 

LESSON XXV. 

PECULIAR PLURALS. 

The plural form of mouse is mice. 
The plural form of goose is geese. 
The plural form of ox is oxen. 

Write the singular form of each of the following plural nouns : 



men, 


children, 


geese, 


women, 


feet, 


mice, 


oxen, 


teeth, 


lice. 



In the following sentences, fill each blank with one of the fore- 
going plural nouns : 

1. We saw two chasing a fox. 

2. Jane got her wet while at play. 

3. Good little girls grow into good 



4. Richard has two little white in a cage. 

5. Did you ever see a yoke of ? 

6. Jesus blessed little . 

7. are little parasites that suck the blood of animals. 

8. The feathers of are used in pillows. 

Find the phtral nouns in the following sentences : 

Kind hearts are the gardens. 
Kind thoughts are the roots. 
Kind words are the blossoms. 
Kind deeds are the fruits 

What is the singular form of each noun ? 

Hozv is the plural form made ? 

What is the subject and predicate of each sentence? 



48 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXVI. 

PLURALS OF NOUNS ENDING IN F. 

The plural of beef is beeves. 
The plural of calf is calves. 
The plural of wife is wives. 

Nouns ending in / or fe often change this ending to ve, and 
then add s to form the plural. 

What is the plural of — 

sheaf, elf, loaf, 

leaf, knife, half, 

shelf, life, self. 

The plural of cliff is cliffs. 
The plural of safe is safes. 
The plural of chief is chiefs. 

These nouns add s to form the plural. When you are in 
doubt about the plural of a noun ending in / or fe, consult the 
dictionary. 

Form the plural of the following nouns in this way : 



dwarf, 


gulf, 


reef, 


fife, 


hoof, 


scarf, 


giraffe, 


proof, 


roof. 



In the following sentences, fill each blank with the plural form 
of one of these nouns : 

sheaf, hoof, half, knife, 

chief, giraffe, loaf, dwarf. 



THE Y NOUNS. 49 

1. In Africa Mr. Stanley found tribes of very tiny people called 



2. have very long necks. 

3. John and James are whittling with their 

4. Men cut grain and bind it in . 

5. A horse has four . 

6. An apple may be cut into two . 



7. The rulers of tribes of Indians were called . 

8. Have you read the parable of the and fishes? 

/;/ the following sentences, fill each blank with the plural of one 
of the following nouns : 

safe, leaf, beef, cliff, 

gulf, calf, fife, life. 

1. A cow and her twin were exhibited at the World's Fair. 

2. We are helped by studying the of great men. 

3. There are not two alike on any tree. 

4. The robbers blew open two with explosives. 

5. The boys made a great noise blowing their — . 

6. Eagles build their nests on of high mountains. 

7. The butcher killed three to-day. 

8. Along the Atlantic coast are many . 



LESSON XXVII. 
THE Y NOUNS. 

1. The ladies took a drive. 

2. One lady did not go. 

Notice that the plural of the noun lady is made by changing 
y to ie, and then adding the letter s, 

4 



50 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. The boys played ball. 
2. One boy was hurt. 

Notice that the plural of boy is made by adding & without 
changing' the y to ie. 

Write the plural form of each of the following nouns by 
adding s ; 

boy, day, alley, 

monkey, money, ray, 

toy, chimney, valley. 

Notice that a y e y or o stands before y in these nouns. 

Write the plural form of each of the following nouns by 
changing y to ie and then adding s : 

Model. — Lady, ladie + s = ladies. 

lady, sky, penny, 

fairy, daisy, baby, 

city, body, pony. 

Notice that a, e y or o does not stand before y in these nouns. 

You see then that all nouns ending in the letter y have their 
plurals formed by changing y to ie, and then adding s, except 
when a, e 9 or o stands before the y. 

In the following sentences ', fill each blank with the plural of one 
of the following nouns : 

baby, valley, penny, city,, 

daisy, toy, alley, fairy, 

pony, lady, monkey, story. 

i. Henry has ten cents in his purse, and has gone to buy some 



2. Some little girls drove a team of through town. 



UNUSUAL PLURAL USES. 5 I 

3. are low level lands lying between mountains. 

4. The kind told us some interesting about 

who lived in a field of . 

5. — ■ in large spend most of their time in 

in the streets and . 

6. often become frightened and cry when they see organ- 
grinders with their . 

. LESSON XXVIII. 
UNUSUAL PLURAL USES. 

1. One deer is in the park. 

2. Two deer are in the park. 

3. One sheep has a black face. 

4. All the sheep have black faces. 

What is true of the nouns deer and sheep in these four sen-, 
tences ? Have they plural forms ? 

This cider is made of apples. 

Could we make a statement about ciders ? 

Could we use the plural forms of the nouns rice, corn, ivlieat, 
brass, gold, silver, news ? 

What is true of all these nouns ? Have they plural forms ? 

See by trial whether any of the following nouns can be used in 
the plural number : 





coffee, 


sugar, 


cream, milk, 




darkness, 


fun, 


honesty, copper. 




iron, 


lead, 


wheat, rye. 




music, 


peace, 




I. 


, These ashes 


are the remains 


of burnt wood. 


2. 


Your clothes 


are new. 




3- 


, These scissors are dull. 





52 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is the number of the nouns ashes, clothes, and scissors in 
the foregoing sentences ? 

Could these nouns be used in the singular ? Try one. 

See by trial whether any of the following nouns can be used in 
the singular number : 

ashes, clothes, goods, measles, 

mumps, shears, spectacles, tongs, 

trousers, breeches, pants, victuals. 

What is true of the number of all these nouns ? 

In the follozving sentences, fill each blank with a noun from the 
following lists. State what its peculiarity is : 

mumps, coffee, clothes, 

gold, corn, pants, 

victuals, ashes, scissors, 

wheat, sugar, cream, 

silver, spectacles, goods, 

trousers, breeches, 

i. Charles drinks two cups of for breakfast, and puts 

and in both. 

2. and are metals of great value, used in making 

coins. 

3. and — are valuable kinds of grain, raised in this 

country. 

4. Richard was sifting and tore his on a nail. 

5. Robert has the , and his jaws are so swollen he can 

scarcely eat any . 

6. The merchant put on his that he might see to cut off 

three yards of calico with the . He sells good . 

7. Old are sometimes manufactured into paper. 

8. Pantaloons, , , and are names for the same 

garment. 



PLURAL USES. 53 




LESSON XXIX. 

Read this poem, copy from it all the plural nouns , and explain 
how each plural is formed. 

TWO ROBINS WANT FOOD. 

When the leaves had all dropt from the trees, 

And the forests were chilly and bare ; . 
When the brooks were beginning to freeze, 

And snow-flakes fell down through the air, 

Two robins came out from the wood 

To the warm habitations of men ; 
On the casement the wanderers stood, 

And thus their petitions began : 



54 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"The snow-flakes come down thick and fast, 
The trees give us shelter no more ; 
Take pity on us in this blast, 

For our feet are all .bleeding and sore. 

"Oh, throw us some morsels of bread, 
While you sit by the side of your fire ; 
And when we are warm and well fed, 
We'll whistle for you without hire. 

" Till the rays of the sun shining bright 
Have melted the snows, let us stay ; 
Oh, see what a terrible night ! 

We shall die if you drive us away. 

" The bugs and the worms are all gone, 
We can find neither berries nor seeds ; 
The ground is as hard as a stone ; 
Supply, we entreat you, our needs. 

" Have pity upon us, and bring 

Some food from your rich winter store ; 
Well leave on the first day of spring, 
And never will trouble you more. ' ' 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How many plural nouns are in this poem? 

2. How many singular nouns ? 

3. What is the last noun in the first stanza? 

4. Is it a singular or a plural noun ? 

5. Can its number be changed? 

6. What noun is there in the poem whose singular ends in 



NOUNS DENOTING OWNERSHIP. 55 

7. What noun whose singular ends in y preceded by a, e y or 
is found in the poem ? 

8. What noun is there in the sixth stanza whose singular ends 
\ny, not preceded by these letters? 

9. What two nouns in the poem have singulars wholly different 
in spelling from the plurals? 



LESSON XXX. 
NOUNS DENOTING OWNERSHIP. 

1. Some boys were flying kites. 

2. One boy's kite became tangled in a tree- top. 

Notice the difference between the noun boys in the first sen- 
tence, and the noun boys in the second. 

They would be exactly alike, but for the little comma in the 
second. That little comma, however, shows a great difference 
in the meaning. The word boys in the first sentence means that 
there was more than one boy, but boys in the second sentence 
means that a boy owned something. 

Which nouns in the following sentences show that something is 
owned ? 

1. The cat's fur is soft. 

2. Eagles carry their young on their backs. 

3. The eagle's beak is shaped like a hook. 

4. The dog's teeth are sharp. 

5. Dogs can gnaw bones. 

6. John's pony lost a shoe. 

7. The pony's foot became sore. 

8. The lamb's mother would not own it. 

Notice the position of the comma in these nouns. 



56 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

How does the position of this comma differ from that of other 
commas ? 

Such a comma is called a raised comma, 

A raised comma used to denote ownership is called an 
apostrophe. 

When we want to make a noun denote ownership, we place 
after it an apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s. 

Ownership means possession. A noun denoting ownership 
is called a possessive. 

This is true of all singular nouns. 

We shall learn how to make plural nouns denote ownership in 
the next lesson. 

Fill each blank in the following sentences with the possessive 
form of one of the following nouns : 



hen, 


squirrel, 


horse, 


fly, 


goat, 


fisherman, 


spider, 


cow. 


bird, 


cat, 


Edward, 





i. The nest was robbed by bad boys. 

2. Nuts are the chief article of food. 

3. The children found a egg in the barn. 

4. Many persons use milk instead of milk. 

5. We can nail an iron shoe on a foot without causing any 

pain. 

6. The web is made of silk. 

7. Did you ever notice how very fast a wings move? 

8. The net was filled with fine fishes. 

9. Have you seen new top? 

10. Do not step on the tail. 



PLURAL POSSESSIVES. 57 

LESSON XXXI. 

PLURAL POSSESSIVES. 

Notice how the possessives in the following sentences differ 
from those in the former lesson : 

i. All the girls' dolls have been put away. 

2. Six boys' hats hang in the hall. 

3. Foxes' dens are generally under rocks. 

Does the noun girls' mean one, or more than one? 

Is the same true of boys' ? Of foxes' ? 

Do all three of these nouns denote ownership? Have you 
noticed that — 

To make nouns denote ownership in the plural, we first 
write the plural form of * the noun, and then place the 
apostrophe after it? 

Model. 

Singular. Plural. Plural Possessive. 

rat, rats, rats'. 

Write first the plural, and then the plural possessive of each of 
the following nouns , as in the model : 

lamb, calf, father, uncle, 

wolf, aunt, mother, sister, 

horse, teacher, parent, brother, 

mule, pupil, son, cousin. 

What is the difference in meaning between — 
bee's honey and bees' honey? 
cat's claws and cats' claws ? 
hen's eggs and hens' eggs? 
pupil's lessons and pupils' lessons? ■ 
teacher's books and teachers' books? 
lamb's wool and lambs' wool? 



58 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXII. 
POSSESSIVES MADE OF PLURALS NOT ENDING IN S. 

Read these two sentences, and notice the possessives in them : 

i. The child's toys were badly broken. 
2. The children's toys were badly broken. 

What is the difference in meaning between child's toys and 
children's toys ? 

What is the plural of child? 

How is this plural made to denote ownership ? 

What is the regular way to make plural nouns denote owner- 
ship? 

How does this way differ from the regular way? 

What is the plural of the noun boy ? . the possessive plural ? 

What is the plural of the noun man ? the possessive plural ? • 

Write the plural forms of — 



ox, 


goose, 


man, 


tooth, 


mouse, 


woman 


mouse, 


louse, 


foot, 


deer, 


sheep, 


child. 



Have you noticed that none of these plurals ends with the 
letter s ? 

Plural nouns that do not end in s, are made possessives by- 
adding" the apostrophe and s ; that is, they are made possessives 
in the same way as singular nouns. 

Insert in each blank of the following sentences, the possessive 
plural of the noun that stands at the end of each sentence : 



OTHER WAYS TO DENOTE OWNERSHIP. 59 

i. claws are long, sharp, and curved (cat). 

2. A hole in the flour-bag may be evidence of mischief 

(mouse). 

3. Drawing heavy logs is work (ox). 

4. Grinding the food we eat is our work (tooth). 

5. feathers make soft pillows (goose). 

6. The tailor makes and sells clothing (man). 

7. The milliner makes and sells bonnets (woman). 

8. Many garments are made of wool (sheep). 

9. antlers are shed once a year (deer). 

10. Mr. McKinney sells shoes (child). 



LESSON XXXIII. 
OTHER WAYS TO DENOTE OWNERSHIP. 

1. We may say John' 's sled, or The sled belonging to John. 

2. We may say A fly 1 s legs, or The legs of a fly. 

3. We may say A horse' s teeth, or The teeth of a horse. 

Fill the blanks in the following expressions : 

1. The bonnet belonging to Jane, or . 

2. The poems written by Lowell, or . 

3. The wages earned in a day, or . 

4. The soldier's sword, or . 

5. A spider's web, or . 



6. The den of a fox, or — 

7. The horns of a cow, or 

8. A deer's antlers, or 

9. The clock's tick, or 

10. The claws of a cat, or - 

11. The fins of a fish, or — 



6o LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



12. Henry's boat, or 



13. The tail of a rat, or 

14. The crow's plumage, or 

15. The fire-fly's light, or — 



LESSON XXXIV. 
ANOTHER USE OF THE APOSTROPHE. 

We may write can't instead of can not. 
We may write don' t instead of do not. 
We may write 'tis instead of it is. 
We may write she 1 11 instead of she will. 

You see, therefore, that two words commonly used together 

may be shortened into one, and the apostrophe is then used to 

show that we have omitted one or more letters. 
t 
Such shortened expressions are called contractions. The 

word contraction means shortened. 

Examine the following contractions, and see whether yon can 
determine what letter or letters have been omitted : 

I'm for / am. ' Twas for it was. 

I' II for / will. If s for // is. 

I've for I have. Who' d for who would. 

I'd for I would. We're for we are. 

There' s for there is. Isn't for is not. 

Expand each of the following contractions : 

Model. — We'll is a shortened form of we shall. 

wouldn't, doesn't, they'll, she's, 

you'll, he'd, 'twill, aren't, 

he's, 'tis, haven't, that's. 



ANOTHER USE OF THE APOSTROPHE. 6 1 

Use contractions in each of the following sentences instead of the 
words in italics : 

i. What is the use of crying over spilt milk? 

2. I have not time to read as much as I should. 

3. I have been coasting to-day. 

4. We are trying to learn about the uses of the apostrophe. 

5. Would you not like to learn to skate? 

6. // was nearly dark when we reached the bridge. 

7. Who is playing the piano so well ? 

8. / have half a notion to buy it myself. 

9. You have torn your new hat. 

10. Are you not going to school to-day? 



LESSON XXXV. 

Insert apostrophes in the following expressions where they belong . 

1. The crows nest is in a high tree. 

2. The old crow pulls up the farmers corn. 

3. Why are crows nests built so high? 

4. Mr. Clark sells ladies furs. 

5. Mr. Hess sells childrens shoes. 

6. The oxens yoke was broken. 

7. That gentlemans umbrella was turned by the wind. 

8. The foxs den was under the rock. 

9. The pupils slates are ready for work. 

10. The ladys watch was stolen. 

11. The sparrows nest was robbed. 

12. He is a wolf in sheeps clothing. 

13. Glue may be made from calves feet. 

14. Cows horns are dangerous weapons. 

15. The caterpillars nest is made of silk. 

16. Dont kill the birds. 

17. Whereer you go, whateer you do, be true and be a man. 



62 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXVI. 
WORDS JOINED IN MEANING TO NOUNS. 

Apple. 

i. Sweet apple. 6. Juicy apple. 

2. Sour apple. 7. Delicious apple. 

3. Small apple. 8. Mellow apple. 

4. i?^ apple. 9. This apple. 

5. Large apple. 10. One apple. 

Notice how the meaning of the noun apple is changed by each 
of these ten words used with it. 

Sweet, sour, and some of the other words change the meaning 
so as to indicate what kind of apple is meant. 

The word this changes the meaning to show which apple is 
meant. 

The word one changes the meaning to indicate how many 
apples are meant. 

Words used to change the meaning of nouns are' called 
adjectives. 

The word modify means change the meaning of. We may say, 
therefore, that adjectives modify nouns. 

Adjectives often denote quality. In the expression, a tall man, 
tall denotes a quality of the man. 

A good son; a wise father; a patient mother. In these ex- 
pressions good is a quality of son ; wise is a quality of father ; 
and patient is a quality of mother. 



ADJECTIVES DENOTING QUALITY. 



63 



Fill the blanks in the following expressions with adjectives 



taken from the following list denoting quality. 

same adjective twice: 

diligent, strong, fat, 

high, convenient, fast, 

little, empty, tall. 

blacksmith. 8. A 

pupil. 9. A 

horse. 10. A 

doctor. n. A 

tree. 12. A 

lamb. 13. A 

egg- T 4- A 



wide, 

skillful, 

boiled, 

1. A- 

2. A 
3- A- 

4. A 

5. A- 

6. A- 

7. A- 



Do not use the 

large, 
generous, 

house. 

barn. 

street. 

hen. 

fence. 

man. 

bucket. 



LESSON XXXVII. 
ADJECTIVES DENOTING QUALITY. 

Mention a quality that may belong to each of the follozving objects : 

Model. — A high hill, 
hill, valley, book, cork, 



book, 

iron, wood, rubber, 

water, chair, table, 

clock, lamp, stove. 

Mention two qualities for each of the follozving objects : 

A may be changed to an when it will sound better. 



brass, 
soap, 
watch, 



Model. — A ragged old coat. 



1. A 

2. A 

3- A 

4- A 
5. A 



coat. 

apple. 

beggar. 

chair. 

bottle. 



6.. A 

7. A- 

8. A 

9. A 
10. A 



fox. 

rainbow. 

cloud. 

dog. 

flag. 



64 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 
PRACTICE IN USING ADJECTIVES. 

Supply an adjective with each of the follozving nouns : 

apple, book, story, knife, man, 

stone, night, horse, hill, fox, 

girl, boy, ring, field, dog. 



Supply a noun with each of the following adjectives ■: 

dark , ugly , good , wet — 

kind , polite , beautiful , blue — 

lame , hard , true , weary 

swift , sour , cold , ' sly — 



LESSON XXXIX. 
IMPORTANCE OF ADJECTIVES. 

See how many adjectives may be used appropriately with each 
of the following nouns : 

Model. 



a little box, 


a large box, a wooden box, 


a tin box, 


an empty box, 


a broken box, a useful box, 


a tight box, 


a useless box, 


a long box, a i?iatch box, 


a ra/box. 


bear, 


knife, night, hill, 


gold, 


field, 


ring, book, stone, 


silver, 


dog, 


fox, squirrel, owl, 


iron. 



KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 65 

Write the following sentences, omitting all the adjectives : 

1. Four fat chickens were killed by a sly old fox. 

2. The proud robin whistled a sweet song. 

• 3. Rubber is the hardened juice of a large tree in Brazil. 

4. The remarkable elasticity of rubber adapts it to many useful 
purposes. 

5. Waterproof cloth is made by applying thin coatings of liquid 
rubber to cloth. 

6. Vulcanized rubber is a hard, black, shining substance, made by 
heating common rubber with sulphur, 

7. Combs, knife-handles, buttons, pen-holders, and other useful 
things are made from vulcanized rubber. 

8. The great stout ship was wrecked in a terrible storm. 

9. Can you say "six, long, slim, sleek, slippery saplings?" 
10. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

This exercise is intended to show how much of the meaning 
of many sentences is in the adjectives. 



LESSON XL. 
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 

Supply nouns with each of the following adjectives : 

good , wretched , pretty 

bright , defiant , weak - 

happy , rough , broad ■ 

obedient , strong , ugly - 

bad , narrow , dark — 



Notice that these adjectives describe the nouns they modify. 
They express qualities belonging to the things named. 

Such adjectives are called descriptive adjectives. 



66 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Supply a noun with each of the following adjectives : 

one , every , few 

two , five , many — 

three , each , this 

any , such , some 

several , no , both 

that , those , these 

the , an -■ ■, a . 



Notice that none of these adjectives describe the nouns they 
modify. They only point out, or indicate the number of things 
named, without expressing their qualities. Such adjectives 
are called definitive adjectives. 

Some of the adjectives in the following poems are printed in 
italics. 

See whether you can tell which of these are descriptive and 
which are definitive adjectives: 

4 i Little children, bright and fair, 
Blest with every needfid care ; 
Always bear this thing in mind : 
God commands us to be kind. ' ? 



' • The butterflies all once gave a grand ball 
Where the roses were sweet, and the lilies grew tall. 
From the north, and the south, and the east, and the west, 
They gathered together, dressed all in their best. 
The music they had was as fine as could be, 
For the birds made a chorus high up in each tree. 
And along came the locust, bringing his drum, 
And a great golden bee, striking in with his hum, 
And every mosquito that came brought a fife, 
While with grasshoppers' fiddles the whole air was rife." 



LESSON XLI. 



6 7 




A Vampire Bat. 



LESSON XLI. 



/;/ the following paragraphs, determine which are descriptive 
adjectives, and which are definitive adjectives. 

Determine also what nonn each adjective modifies* 

THE CRUEL BOYS AND THE BATS. 

Two bats had been hanging by their hooked claws fast asleep, all the 
dark and cold weather of winter. One warm spring evening they 
began to move and open their eyes. The bats felt hungry after their 
long fast, and went in search of some food ; but they had scarcely 
stretched their stiff leathern wings in flight, before two cruel boys 
saw them. The boys at once tried to catch them with a small net 
placed on the end of a long pole. 

If these bats were as big and harmful as their cousins, the vampire 



* The teacher will do well to use other suitable extracts to give the pupils exercise 
in determining the kinds of adjectives and what they modify. Adjectives used in 
predicates modify the subjects. Big and harmful 'are examples. They modify bats 
the subject of were. 



68 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bats of Madagascar, which suck people's blood and do much other 
mischief, the efforts to kill them would be more reasonable. These 
bats if let alone would only fly around the house and among the trees, 
on summer evenings, and do no harm except to moths and flies. 



LESSON XLIL 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

i . Richard is a tall boy. 

2. James is taller than Richard. 

3. William is the tallest boy in school. 

In these sentences, the words tall, taller, and tallest are differ- 
ent forms of the same word. They express three degrees of the 
quality indicated by the word tall. 

Tall expresses the first degree. 

Taller expresses the second or greater degree. 

Tallest expresses the third or greatest degree. 

Changing the form of an adjective to express different 
degrees of quality is called comparison. 

Each of these degrees of comparison has a name. 

The first degree is named the positive degree. 

The second degree is named the comparative degree. 

The third degree is named the superlative degree. 

Notice that to make the comparative degree, we join the 
letters er to the adjective ; as, tall + er = taller. Sometimes r 
instead of er is used ; as, nice + r = nicer. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 69 

To make the superlative degree, we join est to the adjective ; 
as, tall + est = tallest. Sometimes st is used instead of est ; as, 
nice + st= nicest. 

Write the comparison of each of the following adjectives : 

Model. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


small, 


smaller, 


smallest. 


small, 


nice, large, 


white, 


sweet, 


clean, rich, 


poor, 


swift, 


strong, cold, 


thick. 



Use adjectives in the comparative form before each of the 
following nouns. Then use in a sentence each expression thus 
formed : 

Model. — Day. Colder day. This is a colder day than 
yesterday. 

(cold) day, (strong) boy, (large) dog, 

(sweet) taste, (white) cloth, (small) key, 

(swift) horse, (thick) board, (nice) cat. 

Use adjectives in the superlative form before each of the follozv- 
ing nouns. Then use in a sentence each expression thus formed : 

Model. — Knife. Sharpest knife. Philip owns the sharpest 
knife in school. 

(sharp) knife, (cross) hen, (short) pencil, 

(dirty) hands, (long) lesson, (wide) window, 

(hot) iron, (hard) problem, (deep) snow. 



70 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIII. 

MORE ABOUT COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

All adjectives are not compared.* 

It sounds better to say a more azvkward boy y than to say an 
awkwarder boy. 

It sounds better to say the most beautifid rose, than to say the 

beauiifidest rose. 

When it sounds better to use the words more and most before 
an adjective to make it express quality in the greater degrees, 
we do not use er or est. 

The words more and most used with the adjective, make it have 
the same meaning as it gets by comparison. 

Busier and busiest sound well. 

Certainer and eertainest do not sound well. 

More certain and most certain are the correct forms. 

Which of the following adjectives may be compared? 



narrow, 


crooked, 


beautiful, 


strong, 


late, 


wise, 


merry, 


happy. 


fragrant, 


wonderful, 


natural, 





Use more and most with those not admitting of comparison by 
er and est. 

* To the Teacher. — The author believes it unwise to have children taught that 
placing the words more and most before an adjective is comparison of the adjective. 
It has long been called a mode of comparison, but it really is only giving the adjec- 
tive a modifier. In 77iore and most is found the comparison, not in the adjective. 
They are the comparative and superlative forms of fnuch, and are used with adjec- 
tives to give them the same meaning they would have if they were compared. They 
are modifiers, not inflections. It makes it much easier for children to learn it this 
way, because it is the truth. 



THIS AND THAT. J\ 

Less and least are used with an adjective when you wish to 
make it mean the opposite of what more and most makes it 
mean ; as, crooked, less crooked \ least crooked. 

Use less and least in this way with the following adjectives : 

beautiful, wonderful, fragrant, natural. 



LESSON XLIV. 

THIS AND THAT. 

This building is a store. 
That building is a dwelling. 

Notice these two adjectives, this and that. 
What is the number of the noun building? 
If we change it to the plural number, how does it change the 
adjectives ? 

These buildings are stores. 
Those buildings are dwellings. 

Notice that these is the plural of this, and those is the plural 
of that. 

When shall we use this or these ? 
When shall we use that or those ? 

This building (near me) is a store. 

That building (farther away) is a dwelling. 

These buildings (near) are stores. 

Those buildings (more distant) are dwellings. 

Tills and its plural these are used when speaking of the 
nearer of two objects. 



J2 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That and its plural those are used when speaking of the more 
distant of two objects. 

Fill the following blanks with this or these, and that or those, 
and state the meaning thus expressed : 

i. sled is mine, and sled is yours. 

2. are peaches, and are pears. 

3. tree by us is a maple, but one across the way is 

an oak. 

4. Where are candies I bought last night. 

5. Here they are, on table. 

6. knife is much sharper than knife. 

7. apples on tree are much better than apples 

on tree. 

8. daisies in field are beautiful. 



LESSON XLV. 
REVIEW QUESIONS. 

1. Why should we review? 

2. What is an adjective? 

3. Name and define the two kinds of adjectives. 

4. Are adjectives important ? Why ? 

5. Write the story of the cruel boys and the bats. 

6. Describe the vampire bats. 

7. What is meant by comparison of adjectives ? 

8. How are the different forms made ? 

9. Are all adjectives compared ? 

10. How are adjectives, not compared, made to express different 
degrees ? 



A AND AN. 



73 



LESSON XLVI. 
A AND AN. 




A book. 


An apple. 


A fine horse. 


A slate. 


An eraser. 


A big ship. 


A watch. 


An inkstand. 


A log cabin. 


A pear. 


An orange. 


A lazy boy. 



An unhappy boy. 
An unsafe ship. 
An angry man. 
An easy lesson. 

Notice when we use the adjective a and when an. 
A and an have the same meaning. 

Fill the following blanks with a or an : 

i. strong lion caught 



mouse. 



2. inclination to eat the mouse was followed by 

determination to release it. 

3. day later enemy's snare caught the lion. 



74 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The mouse gnawed few strands of the rope, and thus set 

free old friend. 

5. Do you know how men set snare for lion? 

6. With what do they bait snare ? 

7. Is lion stronger than ox ? 

8. Would it require strong net to hold lion ? 

6. Would it require exceedingly strong net to hold 

angry lion ? 

10. lion, leopard, elephant, ostrich, 

and zebra were on exhibition. 



LESSON XLVII. 

Write a story about the Lion and the Mouse. 

LESSON XLVIII. 
OTHER MODIFIERS. 

You have learned that adjectives are used with nouns to 
modify their meaning (see Lesson XXXVI). 

Perhaps you have noticed that a group of words may be used 
in the same way. 

1. The brindle cow is eating grass. 

2. The cow in the meadow is eating grass. 

In the first sentence, the adjective brindle modifies the 
noun cow. 

In the second sentence, the group of words in the meadow 
also modifies the noun cow. 

A group of words like this, is called a phrase. 



OTHER MODIFIERS. . 75 

A phrase is made up of a group of words related to each 
other in meaning-, and expressing* only a part of a thought. 

When a group of words expresses a complete thought, what 
do we call it? (See Lesson I.) 

Determine what the phrases in the follozving sentences modify : 

i. The tick of a watch was heard in the room. 

2. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 

3. The little mouse in the trap was badly frightened. 

4. Car wheels made of paper are now used. 

5. The crow in the cornfield was frightened away. 

6. He broke the handle of his hoe. 

7. He lost control of his bicycle. 

In the following sentences, change the adjectives to phrases : 
Model. — Houses built of glass are habitations without safety. 

1. Glass houses are unsafe habitations. 

2. John's watch has a gold chain. 

3. Florida oranges are delicious fruit. 

4. January weather is cold. 

5. We make wheat bread. 

6. We wear leather shoes. 

7. Little boats should keep near shore. 

In the follozving sentences change the phrases into adjectives : 

Model. — Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

1. Vessels of large size may venture more, but boats of very small 
size should keep near shore. 

2. Hands in great number make work easily done. 

3. Communications, with evil associates, corrupt manners of the 
right kind. 

4. Men of few words are the men of the best ki?id. 

5. Leaks of small size sink ships of great size. 



j6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIX. 
RELATION WORDS. 

The relation existing between a phrase and the word to which 
it belongs is often shown by one of the little words in, to, at, 
upon, by, over, with, etc. 

These words used thus are called prepositions. 
A preposition is a relation word. 

Supply prepositions in the following paragraph, where there are 
blanks : 

Henry's mother sent him the store to buy some sugar. She 

told him to return as soon as possible because she needed the sugar to 

use some fruit she was preserving. — his way home, he 

met another boy the road, and they went off the woods 

to gather nuts. Henry forgot all his mother's request, and 

when they left the woods, he forgot all the sugar too, and left 

it lying a log. When, nearly home he happened to think 

it, and hurried back to find it. But it was nearly dark when 

he reached the wood the second time, and he could not find it. He 

did not get home until long dark. His father was very much 

displeased him, and to make him more thoughtful the 

future, sent him bed any supper. 

You notice that prepositions have very little meaning. They 
are merely relation words. For this reason they are more easily 
supplied when omitted from a sentence, than nouns or adjec- 
tives are. 

In a phrase, there is always one word, called the principal 
word, related in meaning to the word the phrase modifies. It is 



RELATION WORDS. JJ 

important to be able to point out this principal word and 
indicate its relation to the other word. 

Model. — The top of the bean-stalk seemed very high. 

Of the bean-stalk is a phrase. 

This phrase modifies the noun top. 

The principal term of this phrase is the word bean-stalk. 
The preposition of expresses the relation of the noun bean- 
stalk to the noun top, which the phrase modifies. 

Point out the phrases in the following sentences. Name the 
principal term in each phrase, and indicate the office of the 
preposition as in the model : 

i. The bird in the hand is the most desirable. 

2. The writing on the wall made the king tremble. 

3. The rod of Moses smote the rock. 

4. The waters in the rock gushed forth. 

5. Bucephalus was the name of Alexander's horse. 

6. A cat in mittens catches no mice. 

7. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

8. Kindness to old people is always rewarded. 

9. The selfish dog in the manger kept away the hungry cow. 
10. Nobody but me went. 

Use the following prepositions in short sente?ices : 



in, 


above, 


around, 


into, 


under, 


beyond, 


of, 


from, 


between, 


for, 


upon, 


behind, 


with, 


over, 


before. 



78 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




LESSON L. 

A SELECTION TO BE STUDIED. 
THE DUEL. 

The gingham dog and the calico cat 

Side by side on the table sat ; 

'Twas half past twelve, and what do you think ! 

Neither of them had slept a wink. 

And the old Dutch clock and Chinese plate 

Seemed to know, as sure as fate, 

There was going to be an awful spat. 

(I wasn't there, — I simply state 

What was told to me by the Chinese plate.) 

And the gingham dog went " bow- wow- wow !" 
And the calico cat replied "meow !" 
And the air was streaked for an hour or so 
With fragments of gingham and calico, 



A SELECTION TO BE STUDIED. 79 

While the old Dutch clock in the chimney place 
Up with its hands before its face, 
For it always dreaded a family row ! 

(Now mind, I'm simply telling you 

What the old Dutch clock declares is true.) 

The Chinese plate looked very blue, 

And wailed, " Oh, dear ! what shall we do !" 

But the gingham dog and the calico cat 

Wallowed this way, and tumbled that, 

And utilized every tooth and claw 

In the awful lest way you ever saw ; 

And, oh ! how the gingham and calico flew ! 

(Don't think that I exaggerate ; 
I got this from the Chinese plate.) 

Next morning where the two had sat, 
They found no trace of the dog or cat ; 
And some folks think unto this day 
That burglars stole that pair away ; 
But the truth about that cat and pup 
Is, that they ate each other up. 
Now, what do you really think of that ? 

(The old Dutch clock, it told me so, 
And that is how I came to know.) 



Eugene Field. 



I. Read the poem carefully* 



* To the Teacher. — This should be divided into several lessons to suit the 
ability of the pupils, and the time at their disposal. A week spent in the study of 
such a selection is well spent. 

Eugene Field was a journalist. He was born in St. Louis in 1850, and died in 
Chicago in 1895. He wrote many interesting and humorous sketches in both prose 
and verse. His poems for children are his best productions in verse. He has been 
called " poet-laureate of the little folk." 



8o LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Answer these questions. 

What is a "duel?" What is meant by a "gingham dog?" a 
"calico cat;" a " Dutch clock;" a " Chinese plate?" What made 
the Chinese plate look "very blue?" What do we mean when we 
say people look blue, ox feel blue? What is a "spat?" What is " a 
family row?" Did this duel occur in the day or in the night? What 
time? Who saw it? What do "wallowed," "utilized," "exag- 
gerate," and "burglars" mean? Who wrote this poem? Who was 
Eugene Field ? 

3. Write the story of the poem in your own words, without 
looking at the book. 

4. Commit the poem to memory. 

5. Recite it. See how well you can express the meaning. 



LESSON LI. 
ABOUT QUOTATION MARKS. 

1. " Father," said Harry one day, "A boy hid in the woods, and 
called me names." 

2. " What did he call you?" asked the father. 

3. "He began by mocking me," said Harry. "He said every 
thing I did, and finally called me a ^saucy fellow." 

4. "Harry," said his father, "you have been listening to an echo. 
You must have used the taunting name first." 

You will notice in the foregoing sentences, there are three 
persons speaking : Harry, his father, and the one who tells the 
incident. 

Harry's words, and his father's words, are copied by the one 
who tells the story. 



ABOUT QUOTATION MARKS. 8 I 

When we copy the exact words of another we quote. 
The words quoted are called a quotation. 

To show T that words are quoted, we use these marks (") at the 
beginning, and these (") at the end of the quotation. 

The words of the person using the quotation are usually 
separated from the words of the quotation, by commas. 

Quotations that would make sense if used alone, always 
begin with a capital letter. 

Copy the following sentences, observing how the quotation marks \ 
capital letters, and commas are used : 




i. " Oh ! Dick," cried Tom, "do you know what my father gave 
me last week ?' ' 

2. " No," said Richard, " tell me what he gave you." 

3. "He gave me a pair of beautiful young gray squirrels," said 
Tom. 

6 



82 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. " Where did he get them?" asked Dick eagerly. 

5. " He was chopping down a tree in the wood," said Tom, 
"and two young squirrels were found inside the tree, which was 
hollow." 

6. " How did he catch them?" asked Dick. 

7. " When the tree fell," said Tom, " it split open and threw the little 
things out upon the ground. They immediately ran back into their 
nest of leaves, and my brother Dan threw his coat over them and thus 
secured them." 

8. "Where do you keep them?" queried Dick. 

9. " I keep them," replied Tom, "in a nice wire cage which has at 
one end a big wheel for them to play in." 

Copy the following sentences, inserting commas, capital let- 
ters, periods, question marks, and quotation marks where they 
belong : 

1. honey-bee said little mabel what are you doing on that rose 

2. i am sucking the sweet juice from this flower my little girl said 
the bee 

3. you have a very pretty plush coat and such lovely gauze wings 
i should like to take you in my hand little bee said mabel 

4. i am glad you like my coat and my wings said the bee but if you 
touch me i shall hurt you with my sting 

5. my sting has poison on it said the bee it is the only weapon i 
have with which to punish people who interfere with me 

6. what makes you so much afraid of being disturbed said mabel 

7. i am very busy replied the bee it will take me all summer to 
gather and store enough honey to keep me from starving in winter 

8. one cold day iu the fall a starving grasshopper met an ant who 
was spreading gram 111 the sun to dry the grasshopper begged her to 
give him a few grains to prevent his dying from hunger what were 
you doing all summer asked the ant i sang replied the grasshopper 
if you sang all summer you may dance all winter was the ant's 
reply 



CONTRACTIONS AND QUOTATIONS. 



83 




LESSON LII. 



CONTRACTIONS AND QUOTATIONS. 



Explain all the contractions and quotations in the following 
poem. Then commit the poem to memory so as to be able to recite 
it well. 

A TEMPERANCE SONG. 

I asked a sweet robin, one morning in May, 
Who sang in the apple tree over the way, 
What 'twas he was singing so sweetly about, 
For I'd tried a long time and couldn't find out. 
" Oh, I'm sure," he replied, " you cannot guess wrong ; 
Don't you know I am singing a temperance song? 

" Teetotal? why, that's the first word of my lay ; 
And then don't you see how I twitter away? 



84 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'Tis because I've just dipped my beak in the spring, 
And brushed the fair face of the brook with my wing. 
Cold water ! cold water ! that's my sweet song, 
And I love to keep singing it all day long. 

And now my dear miss, won't you give me a crumb 

For my dear little nestlings, waiting at home ? 

And one thing besides, — since my story you've heard, 

I hope you'll remember the lay of the bird j 

And never forget, while you list to my song, 

All the birds to the cold-water army belong." 



LESSON LIII. 
SUBSTITUTES FOR NOUNS. 

I and We. 

Here are two ways of saying the same thing. 

i. John lived with his grandmother, and he was very kind to her. 
He tried to relieve her of work and worry whenever he could. 

2. John lived with John' s grandmother, and John was very kind to 
John' 's grandmother. John tried to relieve John' 's grandmother of work 
and worry whenever John could. 

Which is the better way ? Why ? 

How do we avoid repeating the words Joints, John, and Johns 
grandmother so many times. 

The words used as substitutes for nouns, are called 
pronouns. 

When the person speaking, wishes to avoid the use or repeti- 
tion of his own name, he may use the pronoun I. 



SUBSTITUTES FOR NOUNS. 85 

My is the form of I to denote possession. 

Me is its form when it is the object * of a verb, or is the 
principal term after a preposition. 

1. I love pets. 

2. My pets are tame. 

3. The pets love me, or The pets run to me. 

I, my, and me, like nouns, have plural forms. 
"We is the plural of I. 
Our is the plural of my. 
Us is the plural of me. 

1. We love pets. 

2. Our pets are tame. 

3. The pets love us, or The pets run to us. 

Singular. Plural. 

I, -we, = used as subjects. 

My, our, = used as possessives. 

Me, us, = used as objects, or with prepositions. 

These six forms of I may be used as substitutes for the name 
of the person speaking. 

I is called the personal pronoun of the first person ; — a per- 
sonal pronoun, because it is substituted for the name of a per- 
son ; — of the first person, because that person is the speaker of 
the sentence. 

Copy the following sentences, filling each blank with one of the 
six forms of the pronoun I. 



* To the Teacher. — The teacher will need to explain the terms object and 
preposition as used here. This can be done by referring to the Lesson LXV. in 
verbs and Lesson XLIX. in prepositions. 



86 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. have a dog. 

2. also have a playmate. 

3. Fred is playmate's name. 

4. often play together. 

5. Fido is the name of • — dog. 

6. Fido loves both. 

7. both love Fido. 

8. Fred gave Fido to on birthday. 

9. birthdays are only a week apart. 

10. Fido allows to put harness on him. 

State the office of each pronoun supplied. 

Mine is used instead of my when the name of the thing 
possessed is omitted ; as, This dog is mine. Mine is larger 
than yours. 

Ours is used instead of our also, when the name of the thing 
possessed is omitted. 

LESSON LIV. 

MORE ABOUT PRONOUNS. 

Singular uses of You. 

Joseph, you have grown, illustrates You as subject (singular). 

I scarcely knew you, You as object. 

Your appearance has changed, " Your as possessive. 

How has it been with you ? You with a preposition. 

Plural uses of You. 

Men, you are cowards, illustrates You as subject (plural). 

I despise you, You as object. 

Your country is dishonored, Your as possessive. 

I shall separate from you. You with a preposition. 



MORE ABOUT PRONOUNS. 87 

The pronoun used as a substitute for the person spoken to y is 
you. It has the same form in all uses, except that the possessive 
form is your. Whether it represents one or more than one the 
form is the same.* 

This was not always true. 

Once you was used to represent plural nouns only. Now it is 
also used to represent singular nouns, but its predicate is still a 
plural verb. 

Use the plural verbs are, were, or have in each blank of the 
follozving sentences. Copy the sentences : 

1. You once an honored citizen. 

2. You now a villain. 

3. John, where you ? 

4. Where you been ? 

5. Why you late to school yesterday? 

6. Why you so careless about your attendance ? 

7. you been to school to-day? 

8. you kept after school by the teacher ? 

9. you studied your lesson for to-morrow? 

State the use of you or your in each sentence ; that is, whether 
it is the subject, object, possessive, or is used with a preposition. 

Yours is used instead of your when the name of the thing 
possessed is omitted ; as, This dog is yours, or Yours is larger 
than mine. 

You is called the personal pronoun of the second person. 
By " the second person " is meant the person spoken to. 

* Thou is the old singular form of you. Its possessive form is thy. Its object 
form is thee. It is still used in the singular instead of you, by members of the 
Society of Friends. 



88 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Find and name the personal pronouns in the following stanzas . 

Busy-bee, busy-bee, 

Always on the wing, 
Wait a bit, where you have lit, 

And tell me why you sing. 

Come just a minute, come 
From your rose so red ! 
" Hum, hum, hum, hum " 
Was all the bee said. 

Busy-bee, busy-bee, 

Always light and gay, 
Seems to me, busy-bee, 

Your work is only play. 

But while I mused, I learned 

The secret of her way : 
Do my part with cheerful heart, 

And turn my work to play. 



LESSON, LV. 

MORE ABOUT PRONOUNS. 

i. Joe had a watch and wished to sell it. 

2. Frank said he would like to buy it. 

3. Ethel declared she would not have it. 

4. She wanted her brother to buy a gold watch. 

5. Joe declared his watch to be a good time-keeper. 

6. Frank said its case suited him. 

7. So they disputed. 

8. Their teacher advised them to end the dispute. 




MORE ABOUT PRONOUNS. 89 

All the pronouns printed in heavy type in the foregoing sen- 
tences, are used as substitutes for the names of tilings spoken of. 

State the office of each pronoun printed in heavy type. 

his ^ 

are different forms of he, and are used as substitutes 

for names of males. 

are different forms of she, and are used as substitutes 

for names of females, 
are different forms of it, and are used as substitutes 

for names of things without sex. 

they ^ 

,, . ( are used as substitutes for the plurals of names of 

,, j things spoken of. 

Study the first eight sentences in this lesson, and point out the 
subject forms of these pronouns. 
Point out the possessive forms. 
Point out the object forms. 
Which have the same form for subject and object ? 

These three pronouns, he, she, and it (with their different 
forms), are called personal pronouns of the third person. 
By " the third person " is meant the person or thing spoken of. 

Theirs is used instead of their when the name of the thing 
possessed is omitted ; as, This book is theirs, or Tlieirs is torn. 

Copy the following sentences, using personal pronouns of the 
third person for the nouns in italics : 

1. Spring is coming. Spring will soon be here. 

2. See the trees. The trees are putting forth leaves. 

3. These trees bear fruit. The fruit is luscious. 

4. Call the dog. I suspect the dog is chasing the cat. 



90 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Where is Ann's knife? I fear Ann 's knife is lost. 

6. Jennie found my knife. Jennie has good eyes. 
•7. Where is John? Is John at home. 

8. Will has some pears. Will is fond of pears. 

9. Will eats one of the pears. The flavor of the pear is delicious. 

10. Will and Will' s father till a large farm. 

11. Will and Will's father's farm is near the city. 



LESSON LVL 

AFTER IT IS AND IT WAS. 

The subject form of the personal pronoun should be used after 
the expressions It is and It was. 

We should say- 
It is I ^ 

It is he > singular forms. 
It is she j 

It is we I 
Itisthey}P luralforms - 

Supply the subject form of the personal pronouns after It was 
in the following expressions : 

1 . Who called ? It was . 



2. Mary, who whispered? It was . 

3. Did you or they make the noise ? It was 

4. Did you or Jane lose a pencil ? It was 



5. Pupils, were you in the wrong, or was it some one else ? It was 



ny times* 


It is I, 


It is he, 


It is she, 


It is we, 


It is they. 



REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 9 1 

Say man 

It was I, 
It was he, 
It was she, 
It was they, 
It was we. 



LESSON LVII. 
REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 

1. What is a pronoun ? 

2. Why do we need to use pronouns ? 

3. Name the pronoun of the first person. 

4. How many forms has I? 

5. What are its singular forms ? 

6. What are its plural forms ? 

7. Make a sentence containing the singular subject form of /. 

8. Make a sentence containing the singular object form. 

9. Make a sentence containing the singular possessive form. 

10. Make a sentence containing the plural subject form. 

11. Make a sentence containing the plural object form. 

12. Make a sentence containing the plural possessive form. 

1 3. What does plural mean ? 

14. Why is /called a personal pronoun ? 

15. Why is it of the first person ? 

16. When are the forms mine and ours used ? 



* To the Teacher. — The repetition of these expressions many times will edu- 
cate the pupil's ear to the correct form. Mistakes in the use of personal pronouns are 
more common in oral language, than in written. 



92 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LVIII. 
ANOTHER REVIEW LESSON. 

1. Name the pronoun of the second person. 

2. Why is it a personal pronoun ? 

3. How many forms has you ? 

4. What is the subject form ? 

5. What is the possessive form ? 

6. Are there any plural forms ? 

7. What form is used as a substitute for a plural noun used 
as subject; as object; as possessive? 

8. Was you always used in the singular ? 

9. What is true of the predicate of you ? 

10. What is the old singular form for you ? 

1 1 . What is the possessive form of thou ? 

12. What is its object form ? 

13. When is yours used ? 

14. Make sentences to illustrate all the forms of you. 



LESSON LIX. 
ANOTHER REVIEW LESSON. 

1. Name the pronouns of the third person. 

2. Which of them is used as a substitute for names of males ? 

3. Which is used as a substitute for names of females ? 

4. Which is used as a substitute for names of things that 
have no sex ? 



THE LIFE OF THE SENTENCE. 93 

5. What is the plural pronoun corresponding to the singular 
forms he, shc y and it ? 

6. What is the possessive form of they ? 

7. What is the object form ? 

8. When is theirs used ? 

9. Make a sentence containing the singular subject form he. 

10. Make a sentence containing the singular possessive form 
of lie. 

1 1. Make a sentence containing the singular object form of he. 

12. Make a sentence containing all the singular forms of she 
and it. 

13. Make a sentence containing the different forms of they. 

14. What forms of pronouns are used after It is and It was? 

15. Make sentences containing the different uses. 



LESSON LX. 

THE LIFE OF THE SENTENCE. 

There is one word in every sentence that is more important 
than any other word in the sentence. Without this important 
word the sentence would not express a thought ; and if it did 
not express a thought, you know, it would not be a sentence. 

The name of this important word is the verb. It is the part of 
the sentence that tells something. It is always in the predicate 
of the sentence. 

Sometimes the verb alone is the predicate ; as, Birds fly. 

Sometimes the verb and its modifiers form the predicate ; as, 
Birds live on seeds and insects. 



94 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The verb sometimes expresses action ; as, Horses run. Here 
run expresses action. 

The verb sometimes states that something exists, or has being ; 
as, There are fish in the sea. Here are asserts being, — asserts 
that the fish have existence. 

The verb sometimes expresses the state of being or condition 
of something; as, The boy sleeps. Here sleeps asserts condition. 

We say, therefore, that the verb expresses action, being-, or 
condition of some subject. 

Supply verbs for the following subjects : 

Hens . The wind . 

The cow . Wasps . 

Horses — : . Babies . 

Colts . Birds . 

Flowers . Dogs . 

Ships . Bells . 



Copy the following sentences, supplying verbs for the blanks hi 
each : 

i. The children on the bank of a river. 

2. One child into the water. 

3. A large dog — the child from drowning. 

4. Bees honey from flowers. 

5. Bees honey in hives for winter food. 

6. The old hen her nest under the barn. 

7. The old hen out from her hiding place with seven little 

chicks. 

8. Jane an invitation to the party. 

9. The rain , and the floods , and the winds 

and upon that house ; and it not, for it founded 

upon a rock. 



MORE ABOUT VERBS. 95 

LESSON LXI. 
MORE ABOUT VERBS. 

Sometimes several words taken together form a verb ; as, 
Spring has come. 

Here has come form one verb. The two words taken together 
assert the action. 

The flowers have been frozen. 

Here the three words have been frozen form the verb. These 
three taken together assert the action. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences and state which 
contain one and which more than one word : 

i. John's father owns an orange grove in Florida. 

2. John had seen orchards of apple trees. 

3. He had never seen an orange orchard. 

(The word never here stands between the parts of the verb.) 

4. An orange orchard is called an orange grove. 

5. Oranges hang to the trees by stems. 

6. They are like apples in this respect. 

7. Some oranges have rough rinds. 

8. The rind is the skin of the orange. 

9. The rind is filled with little oil-sacks. 

10. Orange oil is made from these oil-sacks. 

11. Inside the rind the pulp is found. 

12. We eat the pulp of oranges. 

13. The pulp is arranged in folds. 

14. These folds are called segments. 

15. Each segment is covered with a thin skin. 

16. This thin skin can be removed easily. 

17. Then you will find great quantities of cells. 



g6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 8. A cell is a sack. 

19. Each cell is filled with juice. 

20. The orange has no core. 

21. Its seeds are encased in large cells. 

22. The color of the orange is called orange. 

23. Cut an orange seed. 

24. Examine it closely. 

25. Describe it to your teacher. 



LESSON LXII. 
A PECULIAR FAMILY. 

Am, is, are, tvas, ivere. 

Here are five words that need to be studied carefully in order 
that you may learn to use them correctly. 

They are verbs. Perhaps it would be truer to say they are 
different forms of the same verb. Each form has its own use 
and its own meaning. 

Am always has the pronoun / for its subject. It is a very 
particular little verb, and will have nothing to do with any other 
word for its subject. Out of all the thousands of nouns, there is 
not one that is acceptable to this little verb ; and of all the pro- 
nouns, there is only this one little pronoun / that can be the 
subject of am. 

I am. 

These are two very little words. 

Am is never used without I. 

We might be tempted to call am a selfish little verb, if it 
were not so very useful. We could not possibly get along 
without it. 



MORE ABOUT THE PECULIAR FAMIL Y. 97 

Notice the following sentences, which illustrate its uses. 

I am sick, I am lame, 

I am well, I am blind, 

I am happy, I am going home, 

I am reading, I am in trouble, 

I am a teacher, I am afraid. 

These are a few — only a very few — of the uses of / am. 

You see that while this little verb am is so very particular 
about its subject, it is not at all particular about the words that 
come after it in the predicate. 

Make ten sentences, using am in each. 



LESSON LXIII. 

MORE ABOUT THE PECULIAR FAMILY. 

Am, is, are, was, were. 

The next member of this peculiar family is the word is. 

It is not so particular about its company. Any noun in the 
singular number may be the subject of is, and also the singular 
personal pronouns of the third person, ke, she, and it; as, 

John is, man is, he is, she is, it is, etc. 

Two connected nouns in the singular must have a plural 
verb ; as, The man and the boy are, etc. 

While is accepts singular subjects, are, the plural of is, takes 
plural subjects ; as, we are, they are, boys are, etc. 

There is, however, one singular subject that is acceptable to 
this verb are, — just one of all the thousands we have in our 
language. This is the singular pronoun you. 

We say you are, never you is. 
7 



98 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Supply subjects for is and are in the following sentences . 

1. and are pupils in this school. 

2. are anxious to learn the correct use of language. 

(Supply a pronoun.) 

3. Many of this school are studying grammar. 

4. is postmaster in our town. 

(Use a proper name with a title.) 

5. is a very accommodating postmaster. 

(Supply a pronoun.) 



LESSON LXIV. 
MORE ABOUT THE PECULIAR FAMILY. 

Am, is, are, was, and were. 

Was is always used to tell about the past. 

It will accept for its subject any' noun in the singular number, 
and any singular pronoun except you. 

It seems to have been offended when you was brought into the 
ranks of singular subjects. We may say, 

/ was, he was, John was, horse was, anything was, but never 
you was. 

Were is the plural of "was. Were also tells of the past. It 
takes for its subject any plural noun or pronoun. You see it is 
quite liberal ; it makes no exceptions. 

We may say, we were, they were, things were, people were, etc. 

Copy the following sentences, supplying subjects for was and 
were. 

1. was the tallest king of the Israelites. 

2. The was feeding her young. 



A FAMILY OF EIGHT. 99 

3. was gathering bugs and worms for them. 

(Supply a pronoun.) 

4. The was trying to catch a hen for his supper. 

5. was too cunning for the fox, and roosted • beyond his 

reach. (Supply a pronoun.) 

6. The and the were watching each other. 

Supply was or were as predicates in each of the following 

sentences : 

1. The boy fly m g his kite. 

2. His two sisters watching him. 

3. His kite — : made of paper and thin strips of wood. 

4. The paper and the wood fastened together with paste. 

5. Bits of paper tied together to make the kite's tail. 

6. you there to see the kite ? 

7. the kite high in the air? 

8. Yes, it very high. 

9. There many boys out flying kites. 

10. They having fine sport. 



LESSON LXV. 

A FAMILY OF EIGHT. 

1. John studies his lesson. 

2. John is studying his lesson. 

3. John has studied his lesson. 

4. John will study his lesson. 

5. John does study his lesson. 

6. John must study his lesson. 

7. John may study his lesson. 

8. John can study his lesson. 

9. John shall study his lesson. 



IOO LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Notice how the little words is, has, will, does, must, may, 
can, and shall, help the verb study express its various 
meanings. 

Will study has a very different meaning from what it would 
have if will were not used. 

The same is true of the other combinations. 

These eight little verbs, whose chief office is to help other 
verbs, are called auxiliary verbs. 

The word auxiliary means helping. 

A verb and its auxiliary verb are considered together, as one 
verb. Will study, in the fourth sentence, is called a verb, just as 
studies in the first sentence is. 

Copy the following sentences, filling each blank zvith one of the 
auxiliary * verbs : 

i. William broken his sled. 

2. Mr. Wood mend William's sled. 

3. He mend it once before, but he broken it a 

second time. 

4. It snowing to-day, and if his sled mended, William 

coast to-morrow. 

5. He take care of his sled, for it break more easily 

next time. 

6. He not load it too heavily, or he ruin it. 

7. William and his brother used this sled many winters. 

8. The snow fallen all day, and the ground covered 

six inches deep. 



* Do is another form of did ; would is another form of will ; could of can ; 
might of may ; should of shall; had of has. 

Am, are, were, and is are also different forms of the same verb. (See Practical 
English Grammar, Lesson 84.) 



TRANSITIVE VERBS AND OBJECTS. IOI 

9. If it not become too warm there be fine sleighing 

and coasting. 

10. Boys and girls take care to keep warm, or they 

freeze their fingers and toes. 

Point out the verbs you have made by supplying auxiliary verbs. 



LESSON LXVI. 
TRANSITIVE VERBS AND OBJECTS. 

John saws wood. 

What is the subject of this sentence? Why? (See Les. XL) 
What is the predicate of this sentence? Why? (See Les. XL) 
What is the verb of the predicate ? 
What kind of word is wood? Why? 

Certain verbs like saws always have a noun to help them 
express the predicate meaning. If we should say John saws, 
you can see that the predicate meaning would not all be ex- 
pressed. It takes the noun wood to complete the predicate. 

Notice that the subject John names the one who performs the 
action. 

The verb saws asserts the action performed. 

The noun wood names what receives the action. 

A verb expressing action received by a noun is called a 
transitive verb; as, Horses eat oats. 

Here eat is a transitive verb. 

The word which receives the action of a transitive verb is 
called an object. 

Oats is the object of the transitive verb eat. 



102 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the following sentences, there are eight transitive verbs, and 
two not transitive. Find the transitive verbs. State in writing 
zvhat word is the object of each, and why. 

Model. — Birds built nests. 
Build is a transitive verb. The noun nests is its object, 
because it names what receives the action expressed by the verb. 

i. Hens lay eggs. 

2. Cows eat grass. 

3. Cats catch mice. 

4. Cain slew Abel. 

5. Dogs run swiftly. 

6. The man reads his paper. 

7. The whale has a small throat. 

8. The little bird built her nest in a tree. 

9. The fish swam away. 

10. The squirrel can crack a nut. 

1*1 the tenth sentence, the verb consists of two words. Which 
are they ? 



LESSON LXVII. 

SOME REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Answer the following questions about the twenty-five sentences 
in Lesson LXL 



1. What is the subject of each sentence? 

2. What is the predicate of each ? 

3. In how many is the verb one word ? 

4. In how many is the verb two words ? 



WORDS JOINED IN MEANING TO VERBS. IO3 

5. In how many is the verb more than two words? 

6. How many of the verbs are transitive verbs ? * 

7. How many possessive nouns or pronouns are found in 
these sentences? 

8. How many pronouns are found ? How used ? 

9. Point out the adjectives used. 

10. Which are descriptive adjectives? What does each 
modify ? 

11. Which are definitive adjectives? What does each modify? 

12. Point out the phrases used? What does each modify? 

13. Name the preposition of each phrase. 

14. Name the principal term of each phrase. 



LESSON LXVIII. 
WORDS JOINED IN MEANING TO VERBS. 

1. John awoke early. 

2. He slept soundly. 

3. He went away. 

Notice that early joined in meaning to the verb awoke, changes 
the meaning so as to make the verb tell when he awoke. 

Soundly joined in meaning to the verb slept, changes the 
meaning so as to make the verb tell how he slept. 

Away joined in meaning to the verb went, changes the meaning 
so as to make the verb tell where he went. 

Words used to change the meaning of verbs are called 
adverbs. 

*To the Teacher. — In answering the questions confine the pupil's attention only 
to transitive verbs in the active voice. Passive voice forms are too difficult for 
beginners. See Lessons 89, 90, 91, and 92 in the Practical English Grammar. 



104 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs sometimes modify adjectives; as, This is a very 
good apple. 

Here the word very modifies the adjective good. 

What does good modify ? 

Adverbs sometimes modify other adverbs ; as, John talks 
quite distinctly. 

Here the word quite modifies the adverb distinctly. 

What does distinctly modify ? 

What do we mean by modify ? (See Lesson XXXVI.) 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences and tell what 
each modifies: 

i . Did you ever see a peach ? 

2. The peach is a very pretty kind of fruit. 

3. It is nearly round. 

4. Its skin is covered with very fine hairs. 

5. We sometimes call this hair fuzz. 

6. How pretty the cheek of the peach is ! 

7. Where did the peach grow? 

8. In the centre of the peach is a very rough, brown stone. 

9. How rich the pulp of the peach is ! 

10. Sometimes the pulp clings to the stone. 

1 1 . The peach is then called a clingstone. 

12. In a freestone peach, the pulp does not cling to the stone. 



LESSON LXIX. 
MORE ABOUT ADVERBS. 

1. John will return soon. 

2. Robert will return sooner. 
2. Fred will return soonest. 



MORE ABOUT ADVERBS. 105 

In these sentences the adverbs soon, sooner, and soonest express 
the time of returning, in different degrees. 

Changing the form of the adverb to express different 
degrees is called comparison. 

The comparative and superlative degrees are formed from the 
positive in the same way as with adjectives. (See Lesson XLII.) 
Only a few adverbs can be compared. 

Write the comparison of each of the following adverbs : 



soon, 


often, 


far, 


long, 
lparison 


hard, 
of much is irregular. 


(much). 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


much, 


more, 


most. 



Like adjectives, many adverbs that cannot be compared may 
be made to express different degrees, by being modified by more 
and most ; as, I laugh merrily ; Jane laughs more merrily ; 
Harriet laughs most merrily. 

Copy the following sentences, filling each blank zvith one of the 
adverbs in the following lists : 



swiftly, 


correctly, 


patiently, 


soon, 


always, 


very, 


back, 


rapidly. 


exceedingly, 


never, 







1. John will return . 

2. He came yesterday. 

3. He walks . 

4. It is dark. 

5. He will go away. 

6. The river flows . 



106 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
7. He wrote that sentence . 



8. He waited for the train. 

9. Owls have large eyes. 

10. Everybody should be polite. 

Make sentences in which the following words shall be used as 
adverbs : 



here, 


often, 


soon, 


' really, 


when, 


never, 


brightly, 


badly, 


fast, 


far, 


much, 


seldom. 



LESSON LXX. 

The longer way : John goes to school. 
Mary goes to school. 

The shorter way : John and Mary go to school. 

Notice that by means of the little word and we are enabled to 
connect the two subjects John and Mary, and use the same 
predicate for both. 

John rides to school. 

Mary walks to school. 

The same little word and enables us to connect these two 
statements into one sentence, and say, 

John rides to school, and Mary walks. 

Point out the connecting words in the following sentences, and 
state whether they connect words or statements : 

1. An insect has a head, and a. thorax, and an abdomen. 

2. A grasshopper has six legs and four wings. 

3. Bees and wasps are insects. 



LEARNING TO USE CONJUNCTIONS. IOJ 

4. Do you like birds or insects best ? 

5 . John rides, but James walks. 

6. I will go skating if you do. 

7. John did it, for I saw him. 

8. Peaches or pears will suit me. 

9. I will win, or die in the attempt. 

10. He rejoiced, yet he was silent. 

11. He will resign, unless he is paid. 

These connecting words are called conjunctions. 

1 . Make a sentence in which and shall connect two nouns. 

2. Make a sentence in which and shall connect two statements. 

3. Make a sentence in which or shall connect two nouns. 

4. Make a sentence in which or shall connect two statements. 

5. Make a sentence in which but shall be used as a connective. 

6. Make a sentence using for as a connective. 

7. Make a sentence using for as a preposition. 

8. Make a sentence using if as a connective. 

9. Make a sentence using yet as a connective. 



LESSON LXXI. 

LEARNING TO USE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Combine the following groups of sentences into single sentences 
by using conjunctions : 

Model. 
James goes to school ^ 

John goes to school > James, John, and Philip go to school. 
Philip goes to school J 

Notice that when more than two words are connected by con- 



108 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

junctions, all the conjunctions may be omitted except the last. 
This is to improve the sound, when it is read or spoken. 

i. The robin builds its nest of coarse hay. 
The robin builds its nest of mud. 
The robin builds its nest of sticks. 

2. The duck's feathers are soft. 
The duck's feathers are oily. 
The hen's feathers are stiff. 
The hen's feathers are dry. 

To combine the foregoing sentences use and twice and but once. 

3. The duck has a broad bill. 
The duck has a flat bill. 
The hen has a short bill. 
The hen has a curved bill. 

4. The duck's legs are placed far back on the body. 

The hen's legs are placed near the middle of the body. 

5. Each hand has a thumb. 
Each hand has four fingers. 

6. Is the thumb the most useful ? 
Are the fingers the most useful ? 

7. The stomach is a powerful organ. 

The stomach is injured by some substances. 

8. The bones of old people are hard. 
The bones of old people are brittle. 
The bones of children are soft. 
The bones of children bend easily. 

9. Willie gathered some walnuts. 
Anna gathered some walnuts. 
Willie gathered some strawberries. 
Anna gathered some strawberries. 



LESSON LXXI1. 



109 




LESSON LXXII. 



Copy the following poem. 

Be careful to begin every line with a capital letter. 
Be careful to use the commas, question marks \ quotation marks , 
and other marks correctly. 

Be careful to notice the use of the apostrophe {see Lesson XXXIV.). 
Count the conjunctions in this poem. 

THE CHICKEN'S MISTAKE. 

A little downy chick one day 

Asked leave to go on the water, 
Where she saw a duck with her brood at play, 

Swimming and splashing about her. 

Indeed, she began to peep and cry, 

When her mother wouldn't let her, 
" If the ducks can swim there, why can't I ? 

Are they any bigger or better?" 



IIO LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then the old hen answered, " Listen to me, 

And hush your foolish talking ; 
Just look at your feet, and you will see 

They were only made for walking." 

But chicky wistfully eyed the brook, 

And didn't half believe her, 
For she seemed to say, by a knowing look, 

Such stories couldn't deceive her. 

And as her mother was scratching the ground 
She muttered lower and lower, 
" I know I can go there and not be drowned, 
And so I think I'll show her." 

Then she made a plunge where the stream was deep, 

And saw too late her blunder ; 
For she had hardly time to peep, 

When her foolish head went under. 

And now I hope her fate will show 

The child my story reading, 
That those who are older sometimes know 

What you will do well in heeding ; 

That each content in his place should dwell, 

And envy not his brother ; 
For any part that is acted well 

Is just as good as another ; 

For we all have our proper spheres below, 
And this is a truth worth knowing : 

You will come to grief if you try to go 
Where you never were made for going. 



Phcebe Cary. 



WORDS EXPRESSING FEELING. Ill 

LESSON LXXIII. 
WORDS EXPRESSING FEELING. 

i. Oh! my tooth aches. 

2. Hark ! I hear a dog barking. 

3. Bow-wow ! I am little dog Dime. 

4. Hurrah ! The Fourth of July is here. 

5. Hush ! Don't wake the baby. 

6. " Cluck ! Cluck !" said the old hen. 

Study the words oh, hark, bow-zvow, hurrah, hush, and cluck 
used in the foregoing sentences. 

They are not nouns, or adjectives, or verbs, or pronouns, or 
any kind of word of which you have learned the name. 

They are not used to express our thoughts, but they are used 
to express our feelings, or to imitate sounds. 

We learned in Lesson VIII. about exclamatory sentences. 

These are somewhat like exclamatory sentences, although 
they are not sentences at all. They have no subjects, no 
predicates, and do not express thoughts. 

They are emotion words. They express those feelings that 
have very little or no thought mixed with them. 

These emotion words are called interjections.* 

The word interjection means thrown between. Interjections 
are expressions of emotion, or imitations of sounds, thrown in 
between our sentences. 



* The teacher should refer to Lesson 121 of the author's larger work for full 
information in regard to interjections. They are not, strictly speaking, parts of 
speech. 



112 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Point out the interjections in the following : 

i. " Bow-wow f" said the dog. 

2. " Mew-mew !" said the cat. 

3. " Cock-a- doodle-do !" replied the rooster, who came up to join 
the company. 

4. " Cut-cut-cut -ah !" cackled Biddie, who always will have her say. 

5. Just then the sheep walked up unobserved, and looking through 
the fence, startled them all by saying in loud tones, " ba-a !" 

6. " You horrid creature !" shrieked Biddie, as she jumped to one 
side, and cast one of her fierce glances at the sheep: " If I had a 
voice like yours, I'd never use it." 

7. "Tut-tut!" said the rooster, who tried to soothe the ruffled 
nature of his dame, " I think you misunderstand our woolly neighbor." 

8. "Hark !" said the cat, as she began to crouch and crawl noise- 
lessly away. " I heard a mouse squeak." 

9. " Oh ! You're always imagining you hear mice squeak," said the 
dog, who had the utmost disdain for any vermin smaller than a chipmunk. 

10. Just then, "bang !" went a gun out behind the barn, and the dog 
sprang forward and over the fence with such a splutter as to knock Biddie 
over and disarrange her feathers, while the sheep had to make a big bound 
to prevent him from alighting on her back, as he came over the fence. 

11. " Goodness gracious !" cried Biddie to her partner, "hadn't we 
better go somewhere by ourselves and scratch for worms ? We'll get 
killed if we keep in such company as this." 



LESSON LXXIV. 

THE EIGHT KINDS OF WORDS. 

You have now learned about eight different kinds of words, 
used to make the sentences we use in talking and writing. 
In Lesson XVI. you learned about nouns. 
In Lesson LIII. you learned about pronouns. 



EIGHT KINDS OF WORDS. 1 1 3 

In Lesson XXXVI. you learned about adjectives. 

In Lesson LX. you learned about verbs. 

In Lesson LXVIII. you learned about adverbs. 

In Lesson XLIX. you learned about prepositions. 

In Lesson LXX. you learned about conjunctions. 

In Lesson LXX1II. you learned about interjections. 

These eight kinds of words are called parts of speech. 

Every word in a sentence must be one of these parts of speech. 
No other kind of word is used. Don't you think it is interesting 
to know that all the thousands upon thousands of words we use, 
can be put in these eight classes. If you learn all there is to 
know about each one of these eight kinds of words, you know 
all about every word in the English language. 

But we must not forget that there are very many things to 
learn about each one of these. Just take a look at the many 
things we studied about nouns, between Lessons XVI. and 
XXXIV. ; — there were proper nouns, initials, abbreviations, num- 
ber, possession, etc., and about each of these there were many 
things to remember. Then, you know, many things were 
omitted, — left for you to learn when you are older. 

But you can feel sure that after you have learned all about 
these eight parts of speech, you will then know all about all the 
words of the language. 

In the following paragraph, name the parts of speech :* 

A poor man found a very large turnip in his garden. 

" I will carry it to the king," he said. " I will present it to him. 



* The teacher will bring out in the study of this selection as many as possible of 
the points that have been studied in the previous lessons, — such as punctuation, quo- 
tations, paragraphs, phrases, etc. Also have the pupil point out subjects, predicates, 
and modifiers where the relations are easily seen, but do not distract the pupil by 
calling attention to difficult constructions that he has not yet studied. 



114 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He can then see what good crops we have, and it will make him 
glad." 

So he carried the turnip to the king's castle. The king took it, and 
admired its great size and beauty. Then he said some kind words to 
the poor man, and gave him three pieces of gold. 

A rich farmer lived near the poor man. He heard about the kind- 
ness the king showed to the poor man, and he said, "I have a big 
calf. I will take it, and give it to the king. If he gave three pieces 
of gold for a turnip, he will give much more for a calf. ' ' 

Then he tied a rope around the calf's neck and led it to the castle. 

" Good king," said he, " I wish to make you a present of this calf. 
I have fed it, and brought it up with great care. It is the finest calf 
in the country. ' ' 

The king knew the thoughts of the rich farmer. He said, " I do 
not want any calf. I have no use for a calf. ' ' The man begged very 
hard to get the king to take the gift. He said, " I will never be happy, 
if I must take the calf back to my home. ' ' 

"Very well !" said the king, "I will take it, and in return I will 
give you a present. It cost me three times the value of your calf. 
Then he gave the farmer the big turnip. 



LESSON LXXV. 

Write fifteen good questions about nouns. 

Make the questions ask about the things you learned in 
Lessons XVI. to XXXIV. 

If you can make more than fifteen good questions, do so. 

Write the questions so they can be easily understood, and let 
them ask about one thing only. 

This is what is meant by a good question. You should also 
be able to answer all the questions you write. 



LESSON LXXIX. 1 1 5 



LESSON LXXVI. 



See how many good questions you can write about pronouns.* 
See Lessons LIII. to LVII. 



LESSON LXXVII. 

See how many good questions you can write about verbs. 
See Lessons LX. to LXVIII. 



LESSON LXXVIII. 

See how many good questions you can write about adjectives 
and adverbs. 

See Lessons LXVIII. and LXIX. 



LESSON LXXIX. 

See how many good questions you can write about prepositions, 
conjunctions, and interjections. 

See Lessons XLIX. and LXX. and LXXIII. 



* The teacher should spend enough time on this and each of the lessons on this 
page to secure a thorough familiarity with the parts of speech here reviewed. Make 
haste slowly here. 



Il6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LXXX. 
KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

i. What is a sentence ? (See Lesson I.) 

2. What do we call a group of related sentences? (See Lesson IV.) 

3. In making paragraphs, what four things are important? (See 
Lesson V.) 

4. What is an interrogative sentence ? Write one. (See Lesson VI.) 

5. What is an exclamatory sentence? Write one. (See Lesson 
VIII.) 

6. What is an imperative sentence ? Write one. (See Lesson VII.) 

7. What is a declarative sentence? Write one. (See Lesson IX.) 

8. How should each of these four kinds of sentences be punctuated ? 



LESSON LXXXI. 

OTHER KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

To find out whether a sentence belongs to one of these four 
classes, we study its meaning. If its meaning is a question we 
call it interrogative ; if a command, we call it imperative ; if it 
declares a fact, we call it declarative ; and if it expresses an 
emotion, we call it exclamatory. 

Therefore, according' to meaning, we have four kinds of 
sentences. 

We shall now study sentences according to their form. 

John rides. 
Henry walks. 

These two sentences may be united thus : 
John rides and Henry walks ; 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. \\J 

Or thus : 

John rides but Henry walks. 

And and but are the connecting words. 

What are such words called ? (See Lesson LXX.) 

Two sentences united by a conjunction into one sentence, as 
in this example, form a compound sentence. 

A sentence having one subject and one predicate is called 
a simple sentence. 

Study the following sentences and state which are simple and 
which are compound. 

i. The boy tried to ride the donkey. 

2. The donkey threw him off his back. 

3. The boy tried to ride the donkey, but the donkey threw him off 
his back. 

4. The girl was going to sink, but John caught her. 

5. Moses smote the rock, and the waters gushed forth. 

6. Moses was angry with the Israelites. 

7. Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon Peter. 

8. Simon Peter was one of Christ's disciples. 

9. A thorn may be small, but it pricks keenly. 

Notice that when simple sentences have been united to form 
compound sentences, they are no longer sentences, but parts of 
sentences. They differ from other parts of sentences, such as 
phrases, in containing a subject and a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing' a subject and a predicate is 
called a clause. 

A simple sentence is not a clause, because it is not a part of 
a sentence. 

Point out the clauses in the compound sentences above. 



Il8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON LXXXII. 

A compound sentence may consist of more than two clauses. 
Here is one with three clauses : 

Some men are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 
greatness thrust upon them. 

Notice — 

i . That the clauses of compound sentences are separated by 

commas. 

2. That when a compound sentence has more than two 
clauses, the conjunction is generally omitted between all but 
the last two. 

Copy the following sentences, using marks of punctuation and 
capitals where they belong : 

i. take plenty of exercise or your body will become weak 

2. the way was long the wind was cold and the minstrel was infirm 
and old 

3. united we stand but divided we fall 

4. men may come and men may go but I go on forever 

5. study this lesson carefully and you will never have any difficulty 
with compound sentences 

6. a simple sentence has one subject and one predicate but a com- 
pound sentence has more than one 

7. a clause has one subject and one predicate but a clause is not a 
simple sentence 

8. the farmer gave the king a fine calf but he could not deceive 
the king 

9. the* little chick tried to swim but it was drowned for dis- 
obedience 



CLAUSES AS MODIFIERS. II9 

LESSON LXXXIII. 
CLAUSES AS MODIFIERS. 

You have learned that adjectives modify nouns, that adverbs 
modify verbs, and that phrases modify other words. 

In this lesson you will learn that clauses sometimes modify 
words. 

1. The industrious boy will succeed. 

2. The boy who is industrious will succeed. 

These two sentences have the same meaning. In the first, 
what kind of word is industrious ? What does it modify ? 

In the second sentence the clause who is industrious is used in 
the same way. It modifies the noun boy. 

A clause used to modify a noun is called an adjective clause. 

The boy will succeed if he is industrious. 

How many clauses has this sentence ? 

Read the first clause. 

Read the second clause. 

What does the second clause modify? 

A clause used to modify a verb is called an adverb clause. 

Find the adjective and adverb clauses in 'the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each modifies : 

1. The boy who is industrious will succeed. 

2. The boy will succeed if he is industrious. 

3. The boy who tried to ride the donkey, was thrown off his back. 

4. The seed which we planted, has become a large tree. 

5. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 



120 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Beggars might ride, if wishes were horses. 

7. John was tired, because he had worked all day. 

8. You should carry an umbrella when it rains. 

9. If you try hard, you will succeed. 

Here the adverb clause stands first. 

10. The grass is growing rapidly since it rained. 

11. Never eat till you are hungry. 

12. The sap, which flows from the maple trees, is boiled till it 
becomes sugar. 

In this sentence there is one adjective clause and one adverb clause. 



LESSON LXXXIV. 
THE NOUN CLAUSE. 

1 . John said that he felt sick. 

2. That the earth is round has been proved. 

In the first sentence, the clause, that he felt sick is the object of 
the verb said. 

The object of a verb is usually a noun. This clause takes the 
place of the noun. 

A clause used as a noun is called a noun clause. 

In the second sentence, the clause, that the earth is round, is 
the subject of a verb. For that reason, it is also a noun clause. 

Find the noun clauses in the folloiving sentences : 

1. We believe that the earth is round. 

2. John said that the donkey threw him off. 

3. That John was scared is certain. 

4. Harry thinks that he is right. 

5. That Harry is mistaken is believed by his friends. 



PRACTICE IN NAMING CLAUSES. 121 

Find the adjective clauses, the adverb clauses, and the noun 
clauses in the following sentences : 

i. Captain Lawrence said, " Don't give up the ship." 

2. Captain Lawrence, who was commander of the Chesapeake, said, 
" Don't give up the ship." 

3. When Captain Lawrence was wounded, he called to his comrades, 
" Don't give up the ship." 

4. While they were carrying Captain Lawrence below, he exclaimed, 
" Don't give up the ship." 

5. In Trinity church-yard, in New York City, is the tomb of Cap- 
tain Lawrence, who was a brave commander. 

6. When the cat is away, the mice will play. 

7. Persons who will not accept advice, cannot be helped. 

8. That which cannot be cured, must be endured. 



LESSON LXXXV. 

PRACTICE IN NAMING CLAUSES. 

In the following paragraph, which sentences are compound?. 
Point out the noun clauses, the adjective clauses, and the adverb 
clauses : 

Once there was a cobbler who sang from morning to night. He was 
very poor, but he was always happy. He lived near a banker who was 
very rich. The banker did not sing, because he was never happy. 
The cobbler's singing woke the banker every morning, and the banker 
wanted to have it stopped. He offered the cobbler a large sum of 
money if he would be quiet. The cobbler took the money home, but 
it did not make him happy. He could not sleep, because he feared 
that somebody would steal it. He grew sad, because he could not 
sing. At last he took the money from its hiding place, and he ran 
with it to the banker's house. "Take back your gold," he cried. 



122 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LXXXVI. 

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

The clauses of a compound sentence are so slightly related 
that they seem almost like separate sentences. 

i. He was very poor, but he was always happy. 
2. He was very poor. He was always happy. 

The first is a compound sentence having two clauses. The 
second consists of two simple sentences. 

Clauses that are only slightly related to each other are called 
independent clauses. 

The clauses of a compound sentence are always independent 
clauses. 

Adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses are always 
closely related to the words with which they are used. 

The mice will play, when the cat is away. 

Notice how closely the adverb clause when the cat is away, is 
related to the verb will play, which it modifies. 

Clauses closely related to the words with which they are 
used, are called dependent clauses. 

A simple sentence has no clause, because, as you will remem- 
ber, a clause is a part of a sentence, having a subject and a 
predicate ; while a simple sentence is not a part of any- 
thing. 



INDEPENDENT CLA USES. 1 23 

A compound sentence has two independent clauses. It may- 
have more than two. 

Now, we must have a name for sentences that have one 
independent and one dependent clause. Such sentences are 
called complex sentences. 

Here are three complex sentences : 

1 . Mary lost the bracelet which her uncle gave her. 

2. Mary wept when she lost her bracelet. 

3. Her uncle said that he would buy her another bracelet. 

Point out the dependent clause in each. 
Name each of the dependent clauses. 

Notice that a complex sentence has one independent clause, 
and one dependent clause. It may have more than one dependent 
clause, but never more than one independent clause. 

Dependent clauses are always adjective clauses, adverb 
clauses, or noun clauses. 

Name the clauses in each of the folloiving sentences, and then 
state whether the sentences are simple, complex, or compound. 

Diogenes was the name of a man who lived in Corinth. He loved 
to live a simple life. He wore old, torn clothes, and he went bare- 
foot. A tub was his dwelling place. One day he threw away his 
drinking cup, because he saw a boy drink from the hollow of his 
hand. King Alexander visited Diogenes, and he tried hard to get 
acquainted with him. Diogenes lay in the sunshine, when the king 
made his visit. He scarcely noticed the king, but the king was 
greatly interested in him. When the king was ready to depart, he 
offered to grant any favor which the wise man might desire. " Get 
out of my sunshine, then," said Diogenes. 



124 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON LXXXVIL 
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED * 



Sentences 



Sentences 



1. Declarative. 

2. Interrogative. 

3. Imperative. 

^ 4. Exclamatory. 

- 1. Simple. 

2. Complex. 

3. Compound. 



> according to meaning. 



according to form. 



~ t \ Independent. 

Clauses. < r 

/ Dependent. 



!i. Adjective clause. 
2. Adverb clause. 
3. Noun clause. 

Name the clauses in each of the following sentences : 

A deer, who happened to be drinking in a clear lake, was impressed 

with the beauty of his horns, which he saw reflected in the water. 

(Three clauses.) At the same time he observed that his legs were very 

Slender. (Two clauses.) 

" I would be a fine creature if I did not have such a despicable set 
of spindle-shanks." (Two clauses.) Thus spoke the deer. 

While he was talking to himself, he heard the noise of a pack of 
hounds, and away he bounded through the forest. (Three clauses.) While 
he was passing through a thicket, his horns became tangled in the 
bushes. (Two clauses.) He was held fast and the hounds tore him to 
pieces. (Two clauses.) The legs which he despised would have borne him 
away safely, if the horns which he was so proud of had not brought 
him to ruin. (Four clauses.) The deer was like many persons, who do 
not appreciate their advantages. (Two clauses.) 



* The teacher should continue the subject of analysis of sentences by clauses 
until every pupil is familiar with every kind of sentence and every kind of clause. 
Care should be taken, however, to devise exercises containing sentences not too difficult. 



HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTIONS. 



125 




LESSON LXXXVIII. 

HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTIONS OF BIRDS AND ANIMALS. 

In writing descriptions, we should follow some order, so that 
they may be pleasant to read, and easy to understand. The 
following order is perhaps as convenient as any : 

r Size, 

1. Write of the appearance^ Color, 

( Parts. 

2. Write of its habits. 

3. Write of its uses. 

4. Write any interesting story or experience. 



Model. 

THE ROBIN. 

The robin is about as large as the catbird or the thrush. It is 
about nine inches long from the point of its bill to the tip of its 



126 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tail, and when its wings are stretched out they measure, from tip 
to tip, about thirteen inches. 

Its head and tail are nearly black, while the rest of its body is 
of a reddish brown color. Its breast has so much of a reddish 
cast, that the robin often goes by the name " Robin Red-breast." 
The under part of its body and tail are almost white. It has a 
yellow bill tipped with black, has brown e-yes, and brownish legs 
and feet. 

While robins are rearing their young, they go in pairs ; but at 
other times they collect in flocks. They build their nests in 
trees, under porches, on fence-rails, in banks by the road-side, 
and in many other places. Their nests are made of mud, leaves, 
dried grasses, and similar materials. When the nest is finished, 
four or five green eggs are laid in it, and they are hatched in 
about two weeks. A pair of robins generally rears two broods 
in a season. 

The robin is a very useful bird, because it eats the insects and 
worms that would injure the crops. Scientists tell us that each 
young robin while in the nest requires enough insects every day 
to weigh more than its own body. When we consider the num- 
ber of bugs and worms a single pair of robins will eat and feed 
to their young in a single season, and remember also that they 
stay with us from early spring till late in the fall, we can form 
some notion of how useful they are. 

A squirrel once undertook to steal the eggs from a robin's 
nest, but the old robins flew at him so fiercely, and pecked him 
so hard with their sharp bills, that he was glad enough to 
scamper away and let their nest alone.* 



* To the Teacher. — Exercises in description of this kind should be repeated 
again and again, and may be made the basis for many reviews. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 1 27 

Notice that this description has five paragraphs. 
What is talked of in the first ? 
What two things are talked of in the second ? 
What is talked of in the third ? What in the fourth ? What 
in the fifth ? 

Describe a sparrow in the same way. 

Suggestions for Additional Exercises in Composition. 

I. 

Many excellent exercises may be had by having the pupils 
commit to memory stanzas of poetry like the following, and then 
recite them, discuss their meaning, and reproduce the thought in 
their own words : 

SONG OF THE STEAM. 

Harness me down with your iron bands, 

Be sure of your curb and rein, 
For I scorn the power of your puny hands 

As a tempest scorns a chain ! 
How I laughed, as I lay concealed from sight 

For many a countless hour, 
At the childish boast of human might 

And the pride of human power. 

I blow the bellows, I forge the steel 

In all the shops of trade ; 
I hammer the ore, I turn the wheel 

Where my arms and strength are made ; 
I manage the furnace, the mill, the mint, 

T carry, I spin, I weave, 

And all my doings I put into print, 

On every Saturday eve. 

— Cutter. 



128 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE QUARREL. 

The Mountain and the Squirrel 

Had a quarrel : 
And the former called the latter " Little Prig," 

Bun replied — 
" You are doubtless very big ! 
But all sorts of wind and weather 
Must be taken in together 

To make up a year and a sphere. 
And I think it no disgrace 
To occupy my place. 

If I'm not so large as you 
You are not so small as I, 
And not half so spry. 

I'll not deny you make 
A very pretty squirrel track. 

Talents differ ; all is well and wisely put. 

If I cannot carry forests on my back 

Neither can you crack a nut." 

— Emerson, 

n. 

Dictation exercises to drill the pupil in the use of capital let 
ters, in punctuation, in making paragraphs, in spelling, penman- 
ship, etc., are valuable, and can be taken from almost any reader 
or child's story book or paper. 

III. 

Stories for reproduction are also useful, but have been (and are 
likely to be) used too much ; that is, to such an extent as to 
crowd out other, and perhaps more valuable, exercises. Fables 
like the following may be used : 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. I 29 



THREE WISHES. 

An old man and his wife lived in a hut in the woods, where they 
earned their living by gathering sticks. One night as they sat grum- 
bling over their hard lot a fairy appeared to them and said : " Fret no 
more, you may have three wishes granted you. Ask whatever you 
please." The old people were delighted, and began to plan as to 
what wealth they should have. The old woman stooped to rake the 
fire, and said unthinkingly " What fine coals ! I wish I had a yard of 
pudding to fry there. ' ' No sooner said than down tumbled a square 
of pudding upon the coals. " You old goose !" shouted her husband, 
" to waste that wish ! I'm sure I wish the pudding was on your nose." 
Up it flew and fixed itself there. They had now but one wish left. 
All they could do was to wish the pudding off again. So their wishes 
left them as before, only that they were wiser. 

IV. 

Many exercises in letter-writing may be used. This kind of 
composition is generally much neglected. In addition to its 
value as a means of improving expression, it is of great prac- 
tical use to the students. Good letter-writers are scarce: and 
yet who does not need to write letters? (See Lesson XXI.) 



Expanding proverbs into paragraphs to show their meaning 
and application is also a valuable exercise. 

Model. 

"STRIKE WHILE THE IRON IS HOT." 

This proverb is evidently drawn from the experience of the black- 
smith. When he wants to shape a piece of iron, he puts it in his fire 
and makes it red-hot ; then with a few quick blows of his hammer he 
can forge it into a bolt, a horseshoe, or whatever he desires. But if 



130 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

he is dilatory and lets the iron cool after taking it out of the fire, all 
his blows are vain ; he has lost the opportunity. 

There is another proverb like this in meaning, which probably first 
came from some farmer — " Make hay while the sun shines." When 
a good hay-day comes, the thrifty farmer always improves it ; he will 
not take the chance of to-morrow's being wet. A few rainy days may 
damage his crop ; so, while the weather is good, he gets his hay in. 

These two proverbs teach us that we must improve our opportunities, 
while circumstances are favorable. We must not put things off, as so 
many are tempted to do, to their great injury. Shakespeare says, 

" There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;" 

but if we do not take it at the flood, it will soon ebb, and we shall find 
to our sorrow that we are too late. The man who has a good business, 
and neglects it till it gradually leaves him, does not make hay while the 
sun shines. The boy who has the opportunity of receiving a good 
education, and fails to improve it, does not strike while the iron is 
hot, — and for him it never gets hot again. 

QUACKENBOS. 

Other proverbs that may be expanded : 

1. The early bird catches the worm. 

2. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 

3. Take care of the cents, and the dollars will take care of them- 
selves. 

4. A word to the wise is sufficient. 

5. A cat in mittens catches no mice. 

6. A new broom sweeps clean. 

7. Every cloud has a silver lining. 

8. A stitch in time saves nine. 

9. Birds of a feather flock together. 
10. Least said is soonest mended. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations, 36, 37, 38, 39. 
Apostrophe, 56, 57, 60. 
Adjectives, 62, 115. 

definition of, 62. 

denoting quality, 62, 63. 

practice in use of, 64. 

importance of, 64. 

kinds of, 65. 

descriptive, 65. 

definitive, 66. 

comparison of, 68. 
A, 73. 74- 
.An, 73. 74- 
Am, 96, 97, 98. 
Are, 96, 97, 98. 
Auxiliary words, 100. 
Adverbs, 103, 104, 115. 

comparison of, 105, 

Capital letter, 16, 34, 35, 37, 39, 81. 
Commands, 22. 

Comma, 24, 118. 

raised, 56. 
Contractions, 60, 81. 
Comparison, 

of adjectives, 68. 
of adverbs, 105. 

positive degree of comparison, 68. 
comparative degree of comparison, 68. 
superlative degree of comparison, 68. 
how to form different degrees of com- 
parison, 68, 69, 70, 71. 



Can, 

a helping word, 99. 
Connecting words, 106, 107. 
Conjunctions, 107, 117, 118. 
Clause, 117, 119. 

adjective, 119, 123, 124. 

adverb, 119, 123, 124. 
. noun, 120, 123, 124. 

independent, 122. 

dependent, 122. 
Composition, 

descriptions, 125. 

memory exercises, 127. 

dictation exercises, 129. 

expanding exercises, 129. 

letter-writing, 129. 

Does, a helping word, 99. 

Exclamations, 16, 23. 
Exclamation mark, 16, 23, 24, 29. 
English, 

technicalities of, 3. 
mechanical teaching of, 3. 

Field, Eugene, 79. 

His, her, him, 89. 

He, 89, 90. 

Has, a helping word, 99. 



Initials, 36. 



131 



132 



index: 



it, 89. 

Its, 89. 
I, 90. 

Is, 96, 97, 98. 

a helping word, 99. 
Interjection, no, in. 

definition of, in. 

Language, 13. 

definition of, 13. 
English, 13. 
gesture, 14. 
spoken, 14. 
written, 14. 
Letter-writing, 40, 41, 42, 43, 129. 

Modifiers, 62, 74, 119. 
Must, helping word, 99. 
May, helping word, 99. 
My, mine, 86. 

Nouns, 33, 114. 

definition of, 33. 

proper, 35. 

substitutes for, 84. 
Number, 

singular, 44. 

plural, 44-55. 

Ownership, 55, 59. 
Object, 101. 
Ours, 86. 

Preface, 3. 

Period, 16, 36, 39. 
Paragraphs, 17, 18, 24. 

indenting of, 18. 

analysis of, 19. 
Punctuation marks, 24. 
Possessives, plural, 56. 
Phrase, 

definition of, 75. 



Preposition, 76, 115. 

definition of, 76. 
Pronouns, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 115. 

definition of, 84, 
personal, 85. 

Question, 16, 21. 
Question mark, 16, 21, 24. 
Quotation, 81, 83. 
Quotation marks, 80. 

Relation words, 76. 

Sentence, 

definition of, 12. 

life of, 93. 

beginning of, 15, 16. 

ending of, 15, 16. 

groups of, 17. 

simple, 116, 124. 

compound, 117, 118, 123, 124. 

parts of, 26. 

subject of, 26. 

predicate of, 27. 

interrogative, 22, 31, 116, 124. 

imperative, 22, 29, 116, 124. 

exclamatory, 23, 29, 31, 116, 124. 

declarative, 24, 31, 116, 124. 

complex, 123, 124. 
Subjects, 117. 

proper place, 28. 

understood subjects, 29. 
She, 89, 90. 

Shall, a helping word, 99. 
Speech, 

parts of, 113. 

how many, 113. 

Theirs, they, them, their, 89. 
This, that , 71, 72. 
Titles, 37. 



INDEX. 



133 



Verb, 94, 95, 115. 
definition of, 101. 
transitive, 101. 

Words, 11. 

spoken, 11. 
written, 11. 
groups of, 11, 12. 
Was, 96, 97, 98. 



Were, 96, 97, 98, 99. 
Will, a helping word, 99. 
We, 84. 

Ton, 86, 97. 

singular uses of, 86, 97. 
plural uses of, 86. 
pronoun of second person, 87. 
Tours, 87. 



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